. 2024 Oct 29;14:25912. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-77377-8

Table 1.

Proximate composition and functional properties of, wheat flour, APP and formulations (n = 3).

	APP	WF	WFP₁	WFP₂	WFP₃
Moisture (%)	4.40 ± 0.41^a	13.6 ± 0.33^d	12.8 ± 0.24^c	12.4 ± 0.16^bc	12.0 ± 0.08^b
Ash (%)	1.50 ± 0.49^b	0.53 ± 0.37^a	0.53 ± 0.29^a	0.50 ± 0.24^a	0.50 ± 0.01^a
Protein (%)	1.43 ± 0.04^a	9.62 ± 0.03^e	9.21 ± 0.02^d	8.80 ± 0.01^c	8.39 ± 0.01^b
Fat (%)	1.80 ± 0.08^b	1.56 ± 0.02^a	1.59 ± 0.02^a	1.58 ± 0.04^a	1.57 ± 0.03^a
Fibre (%)	31.25 ± 0.01^e	0.66 ± 0.02^a	2.19 ± 0.03^b	3.71 ± 0.03^c	5.26 ± 0.05^d
TFC mg CE/g	2.82 ± 0.21^e	0.26 ± 0.10^a	0.37 ± 0.04^b	0.58 ± 0.12^c	0.75 ± 0.03^d
WAC (g/g)	3.35 ± 0.27^d	1.01 ± 0.05^a	1.15 ± 0.02^a	1.23 ± 0.10^b	1.40 ± 2.0^c
OAC (g/g)	1.05 ± 0.18^a	1.03 ± 0.13^a	0.97 ± 0.10^a	0.95 ± 0.10^a	0.92 ± 0.82^a
SP (g/g)	4.66 ± 0.08^bc	4.31 ± 0.13^a	4.44 ± 0.14^ab	4.63 ± 0.15^abc	4.83 ± 0.17^c
FC (%)	24.0 ± 0.82^a	46.0 ± 1.6^d	40.0 ± 2.0^c	38.0 ± 0.8^c	28.0 ± 0.16^b
FS (%)	25.0 ± 1.6^a	48.0 ± 1.2^c	65.0 ± 2.4^d	26.0 ± 0.81^a	42.0 ± 0.82^b
Color
L*	61.16 ± 0.28^a	85.84 ± 0.44^e	81.27 ± 0.41^d	78.01 ± 0.50^c	75.70 ± 0.42^b
a*	3.82 ± 0.20^e	– 0.86 ± 0.07^a	0.58 ± 0.06^b	1.20 ± 0.09^c	1.82 ± 0.07^d
b*	29.55 ± 1.31^c	18.74 ± 0.23^a	18.87 ± 0.60^a	18.97 ± 0.34^a	19.87 ± 0.46^b
ΔE	–	27.30 ± 0.09^d	22.99 ± 0.08^c	20.06 ± 0.06^b	17.58 ± 0.06^a

Results are expressed as means (n = 3) ± standard deviation.

WAC water absorption capacity; OAC oil absorption capacity; SP swelling power; FC foaming capacity; FS foam stability; APP apple pomace powder; WF, WFP₁, WFP₂ and WFP₃ wheat flour sample containing 0%, 5%, 10% and 15% APP respectively; C₀, C₁, C₂ and C3 cookies containing 0%, 5%, 10% and 15% APP, respectively.

Values followed by same letter in a row do not differ significantly (p < 0.05).