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. 2024 Aug 15;56(8):8214–8237. doi: 10.3758/s13428-024-02455-8

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 5 — Personality psychology application. (A) Correlations between predicted versus observed item similarities and (B) predicted versus observed construct similarities based on embeddings from DistilBERT, Instructor (instructor-xl), Cohere (Cohere-embed-english-v3.0), and ada (text-embedding-ada-002) models. C Pairwise controlled manifold approximation projection Wang et al. (2021) of Instructor-XL construct-level features. Colors reflect the Big Five personality factor to which the construct belongs. Error bars represent 95% confidence intervals