Table 5.
Summary of co-infection studies in humans presenting direct evidence. All reported co-infection studies included clinical examinations.
| Reference | Country | No. of samples evaluated | Diagnostic method |
|---|---|---|---|
| Borawski et al. (2019) | Poland | 704 | ‣Serological: Antibodies against Rickettsia, TBE, Borrelia burgdorferi; |
| ‣Molecular: PCR: Rickettsia spp. Borrelia burgdorferi, Anaplasma phagocytophilum | |||
| Boyer et al. (2018) | France | 1 | ‣Serological: Detection of anti-TBEv IgG in paired sera + presence of anti-TBEv IgM in the first serum (ECDC confirmed TBE case criteria); |
| ‣ELISA + Western Blot: Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.) | |||
| Diallo et al. (2017) | Senegal | 1 | ‣Malaria rapid diagnostic test for Plasmodium falciparum; |
| ‣Blood smear: Borrelia + Plasmodium falciparum | |||
| Dong et al. (2013) | China | 30 | ‣Serological: IFA for Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Ehrlichia chaffeensis; |
| ‣Molecular: real-time PCR, nested PCR for Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Ehrlichia chaffeensis | |||
| Dumic et al. (2021) | USA | 1 | ‣Serological: Borrelia burgdorferi detection of anti-IgM and anti-IgG in serum; detection of IgM in CSF and plaque reduction neutralization test against POWV; |
| ‣Molecular: PCR for Borrelia burgdorferi in CSF | |||
| Dunaj et al. (2018) | Poland | 118 | ‣Serological: ELISA, Western blot for Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.) and/or TBEV on serum and CSF; |
| ‣Molecular: PCR for Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.), Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Babesia spp.; | |||
| ‣Blood smear: Anaplasma phagocytophilum spp. and Babesia spp. | |||
| Gęgotek et al. (2022) | Poland | 21 | ‣TBE diagnosed according the European Academy of Neurology; |
| ‣Lyme disease and Lyme neuroborreliosis diagnosed according to Stanek et al., (2011) | |||
| ‣HGA diagnosed according to the case definition by Dahlgren et al., (2015) (see Supplementary Table S3) | |||
| Groth et al. (2022) | Poland | 22 | ‣TBE diagnosed according the European Academy of Neurology; |
| ‣Lyme disease and Lyme neuroborreliosis diagnosed according to Stanek et al., (2011) (see Supplementary Table S3) | |||
| Liu et al. (2019) | China | 180 | ‣Serological: IFA on serum for TBE, Borrelia burgdorferi, Rickettsia heilongjiangensis, Anaplasma phagocytophilum; |
| ‣Molecular: Nested PCR for Borrelia burgdorferi, Rickettsia spp., Babesia spp.; | |||
| ‣Blood smear: Anaplasma phagocytophilum spp., Babesia spp. | |||
| Moniuszko-Malinowska et al. (2021) | Poland | 120 | ‣Serological: IFA for antibodies detection against Anaplasma phagocytophilum; ELISA for anti-Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.) antibodies and TBEV antibodies; |
| ‣Molecular: PCR for Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Babesia spp., Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.), Bartonella spp., Coxiella burnetii, “Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis”; | |||
| ‣Blood smear | |||
| Moniuszko et al. (2014) | Poland | 110 | ‣Serological: ELISA for anti-Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.) antibodies and TBEV antibodies on serum and CSF; |
| ‣Molecular: PCR for Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Babesia spp., Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.); | |||
| ‣Blood smear for Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Babesia spp. | |||
| Primus et al. (2018) | USA | 192 | ‣Serological: ELISA for antibodies of B. burgdorferi (s.l.); |
| ‣Molecular: Multiplex qPCR for the detection of Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.), Babesia microti | |||
| Tijsse-Klasen et al. (2013) | Croatia | 1 | ‣Eritema migrans skin biopsy; ‣Molecular: PCR for Rickettsia spp., duplex qPCR for Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.) |
| Wormser et al. (2019) | USA | 52 | ‣Serological: IFA for antibodies to Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Babesia microti, Babesia miyamotoi, POWV; |
| ‣Molecular: PCR for the dection of Babesia microti; | |||
| ‣Blood smear for Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Babesia microti |