Pharmacological interventions

• Antidepressants

Amitriptyline

Nortriptyline

Paroxetine

Sertraline

Trimipramine

• Anticonvulsants

Carbamazepine

Gabapentin

Lamotrigine

Selurampanel

• Benzodiazepines/GABAergic drugs

Alprazolam

Baclofen

Clonazepam

Diazepam

• Glutamatergic drugs

Acamprosate

Esketamine

Memantine

Neramexane

• Muscle relaxants

Cyclobenzaprine

Eperisone

Orphenadrine

Tizanidine

• Sodium channel blocker

Lidocaine

• Others

Atorvastatin

Betahistine

Chinese medicine

Cilostazol

Cyclandelate

Deanxit

Ginkgo biloba

Melatonin

Misoprostol

3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)

Naloxone

Ondansetron

Oxytocin

Piribedil

Pramipexole

Vardenafil

Vitamin B12

Zinc

Non-pharmacological interventions

• Acupuncture/acupressure

• Bimodal stimulation

Electrical vagus nerve stimulation plus sound therapy

Electrical skin stimulation plus sound therapy

Electrical tongue stimulation plus sound therapy

• Brain/neural stimulation

Transcranial magnetic stimulation

Transcranial direct current stimulation

Direct electrical stimulation

Vagus nerve stimulation

Transcutaneous electrical neural stimulation

• Combination approaches

Tinnitus retraining therapy (directive counselling plus sound therapy)

Neuromonics (counselling plus sound therapy)

• Electrical stimulation of the ear/cochlea

Cochlear implants

(“Recommended by guidelines” in case of profound hearing loss)

Electrical stimulation of the tympanum or the outer ear canal

• Hearing aids

(“Recommended by guidelines” in case of hearing loss)

• Hyperbaric oxygenation

• Low-level laser therapy

• Music therapy

• Neurobiofeedback

• Physiotherapy

• Psychotherapy

Cognitive behavioral therapy (individual, group, or online setting) (“recommended by guidelines”)

Counselling/psychoeducation (“recommended by guidelines”)

Mindfulness-based therapy

Hypnosis

• Sound therapy

Noise generator (complete masking)

Noise generator (partial masking)

Enriched acoustic environment

Fractal tones

Auditory training

Tailor-made notched music training

Coordinated reset auditory stimulation

• Virtual reality-based approaches