Table 1.

Effects of micro- and nanoplastics on human cells and tissues of respiratory, endocrine and immune systems.

System	Sample/Model	Potential MNPs Effects	Reference
Respiratory System	Human lung epithelial cells BEAS-2B	Decrease α1-antitrypsin levels	90,91,93
		Induce IL-6 and IL-8 expression
	Human alveolar type II epithelial A549 and BEAS-2B	Induce senescence	92,93
		Increase ROS generation and pro-inflammatory state
	A549	Induce apoptosis increasing BAX, caspase-3, caspase-8, caspase-9 and cytochrome c	93
		Induce cell cycle S phase arrest
	BEAS-2B and human pulmonary alveolar epithelial cells HPAEpiC	Decrease cell viability and induce redox imbalance	94
		Increase levels of MMP9 and surfactant protein A
Immunitary System	Human monocytes	Pro-inflammatory cytokines release	96
	Hematopoietic stem cells	Decrease survival and proliferation	81
	Human Peripheral blood mononuclear cell PBMCs	Induce IL-6 and TNF-α production	97
Renal system	Human kidney HK-2 cells	Increase ROS levels	99
		Increase Bad and decrease Bcl-2 protein levels
		Increase ER stress-and autophagy
		Increase MAPK and AKT/mTOR signaling pathways
	HK-2 cells	Increase extracellular vesicles	100
	Embryonic kidney cells HEK 293	Decrease cell viability	101
		Increase oxidative stress
		Decrease ATP production
		Increase TNF, IL-6, caspase 3 and caspase 9 gene expression