. 2024 Jul 25;38(10):1393–1403. doi: 10.1177/02692155241261698

Table 1.

Summary of the included studies.

Study	Participants	Predictors investigated	Outcomes of physical activity or walking	Time points for measurement	Factors predicting outcomes
Studies reporting on physical activity outcomes
Mahendran 2020¹⁹ (Australia)	n = 36	Age Pre-stroke activity (PASE) Fatigue (FSS-7) Mood (HDS) Executive function (TMTA and B) Walking speed (10MWT) Walking distance (6MWT) Walking self-efficacy (ASCQ) Perceived stroke recovery (SIS) Perceived health (EQ-5D)	Daily step count	Predictors: At discharge from acute stroke unit and inpatient rehabilitation	*All physical activity outcomes at 1 month:* Walking distance alone (adj R²= 0.26–0.44, p < 0.005)
	n = 36		Frequency of PA (time in long activity bouts)
	Age (y) = 71 (14)
	Age (y) = 71 (14)				*Daily step count and intensity of physical activity at 3 months:* Walking distance and pre-stroke activity (adj R²= 0.41–0.58, p < 0.007)
	Sex = 11 F, 25 M		Intensity of PA (time in high intensity bouts) (accelerometer-derived)
	Sex = 11 F, 25 M			Outcomes: 1, 3 and 6 months after discharge
	Time after stroke (days) = 24 (21)				*Frequency of physical activity at 3 months:* pre-stroke activity levels alone (adj R²= 0.28, p = 0.004)
					*Daily step count and frequency of physical activity at 6 months:* Age alone (adj R²= 0.31–0.32, p < 0.003)
					*Intensity of physical activity at 6 months:* Walking distance, pre-stroke activity and executive function (adj R²= 0.76, p < 0.001)
Thilarajah 2020²² (Singapore)	n = 55	Comfortable walking speed (10-minWT) Step test Ankle dorsiflexor strength Cognition (MoCA) Anxiety and depression (HADS) Falls self-efficacy (FES-I) Motivation (BREQ-2)	Daily step count (accelerometer-derived) self-reported intensity of PA (IPAQ-S7)	Predictors: Within 1-week prior to discharge from inpatient rehabilitation	Daily step count: Walking speed (p = 0.04), step test with affected (p = 0.03) and unaffected limb (p < 0.01)
	Age (y) = 59 (49–67)
	Sex = 29 F, 35 M				Self-reported physical activity intensity: Dorsiflexor strength in affected limb (p < 0.01) and step test with unaffected limb (p = 0.02)
				Outcomes: 3 months after discharge
			Self-reported participation in PA (ACS)
	Time after stroke (days) = median 24 (IQR 20 to 36)
	Time after stroke (days) = median 24 (IQR 20 to 36)				Self-reported participation in physical activity: Walking speed (p < 0.01), step test with unaffected limb (p < 0.01), step test with affected limb (p < 0.001), anxiety (p = 0.03) and motivation (p = 0.04).
Studies reporting on walking outcomes
Bonetti 2008¹⁷ (UK)	n = 203	Locus of control Walking self-efficacy Perceived behavioural control Walking intention Neurological impairment	Walking limitation (functional limitation profile: ambulation subscale)	Predictors: Within 2 weeks after discharge from acute stroke unit.	Walking limitation: Perceived behavioural control = adj R²= 0.19, p < 0.001) and walking recovery
	Age (y) = 69 (12)
	Age (y) = 69 (12)		Walking recovery (walking limitation score)	Outcomes: 6 months after discharge	Walking recovery: Perceived behavioural control (adj R²= 0.11, p < 0.001)
	Sex = 79 F, 124 M
	Time after stroke = Not reported
Katz-Leurer 2005¹⁸ (Israel)	n = 44	Lower limb cycling: cycling at 50 r/min with and without 10 W resistance for 1 min Lower limb strength (SSS) Walking limitation	Walking speed (10MWT)	Predictors: 15 days post stroke	Walking speed: Ability to cycle at 50 r/min with and without 10 W resistance (R²= 0.40, p < 0.01)
	n = 44		Walking distance until fatigue	Predictors: 15 days post stroke
	Age (y) = 65 (11)		Number of stairs climbed until fatigue	Outcomes: 3 months after stroke
	Age (y) = 65 (11)				Walking distance: Ability to cycle at 50 r/min against 10 W resistance (R²= 0.21, p < 0.01)
	Sex =22 F, 22 M
	Time after stroke (days) = 15				Number of stairs climbed: Ability to cycle at 50 r/min with and without 10 W resistance (R²= 0.26, p < 0.01)
Nakao 2020²⁰ (Japan)	n = 1023	Age Sex Stroke type Length of hospital stay FIM cognition and motor score Falls self-efficacy (FES) Hemiparesis severity (Brunnstrom) Time Up and Go (TUG) Walking distance > 100 m Social Network Scale	Walking participation via life–space assessment (LSA)	Predictors: At discharge from inpatient rehabilitation	Walking participation (LSA): Female sex, age, falls efficacy FIM cognitive score and walking speed and length of stay together (R²= 0.54, p < 0.05)
	Age (y) = 65 (58–73)			Predictors: At discharge from inpatient rehabilitation
	Sex = 347 F, 676 M			Outcomes: 2 months after discharge
	Time after stroke (days) = median 97 (IQR 66–134)			Outcomes: 2 months after discharge
Park 2017²¹ (Korea)	n = 72	Age Sex Stroke severity (NIHSS) Stroke side Lower limb strength (FM and Knee extensor power) Cognitive function (WMT, VFT, BNT, CPT)	Walking independence (FAC)	Predictors: Within 2 weeks of discharge from inpatient rehabilitation	Walking independence: Verbal fluency (R²= 0.454), word list memory (R²= 0.449), construction praxis (R²= 0.433) and Boston naming test (R²= 0.424), when adjusted for age, lower limb strength and side of stroke
	n = 72		Walking participation via ambulatory zones (household versus community ambulator)
	Age (y) = 69 (11)
	Sex = 41 F, 31 M			Outcomes: 6 months after stroke
	Time after stroke (days) = 27 (12)			Outcomes: 6 months after stroke	Walking participation: Word list memory (R²= 0.613), verbal fluency test (R²= 0.506), construction praxis (R²= 0.497) and Boston naming test (R²= 0.413) when adjusted for age, lower limb strength and side of stroke

All data is presented as mean (SD) unless otherwise specified.

r/min: repetitions per minute; SSS: Scandinavian Stroke Scale; 10MWT: 10-metre walk test; PASE: physical activity scale for the elderly; FSS-7: Fatigue Severity Scale (7-item); HDS: Happiness and Depression Scale; TMT-A: Trail Making Test Part A; TMT-B: Trail Making Test Part B; 6MWT: 6-minute walk test; ASCQ: Ambulatory Self-Confidence Questionnaire; SIS: Stroke Impact Scale; EQ-5D: European Quality of Life Instrument; FIM: Functional Independence Measure; FES: Falls Efficacy Scale; TUG: Timed Up and Go test; LSA: life–space assessment; NIHSS: National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale; FM: Fugl–Meyer Scale; WMT: word list memory test; VFT: verbal fluence test; BNT: Boston naming test; CPT: construction praxis test; FES-I: Falls Efficacy Scale (International); FAC: functional ambulation categories; 10-minWT: 10-minute walk test; MoCA: Montreal cognitive assessment; HADS: Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; BREQ-2: Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2; ACS: activity card sort – high demand leisure; IPAQ-S7: International Physical Activity Questionnaire-Short 7 Days.