Table 2. Provider and societal costs for video-observed therapy (VOT) and standard of care (SoC) in 2022 international dollars.

Study	Country	DAT pts.	VOT Type	Duration	SOC	Provider costs per person treated			Costs included
						VOT	SoC	Incremental
Beeler Asay et al34 (2020)	USA	63	Async.	6 months - Calc.	DOT (field)	$2471	$2888	–$417	S, T, F, I
				6 months - Calc.	DOT (clinic)	$2471	$1856	$616
		50	Sync.	6 months - Calc.	DOT (field)	$1208	$2888	–$1680
				6 months - Calc.	DOT (clinic)	$1208	$1856	–$648
Buchman and Cabello46 (2017)	USA	24	Sync.	NR	DOT (field)	Incremental		–$1256	S, T, F
Fekadu et al47 (2021)	USA	NR*	Sync.	6 months	SAT	$13 428	$15 353	–$1925	S, D, T, F
				6 months	DOT (clinic)	$13 428	$15 048	–$1620
Garfein et al41 (2018)	USA	225	Async.	6 months	DOT (field)	$4108	$5549	–$1441	S, T, F
Guo et al48 (A) (2020)	China	199	Sync.	NR	DOT (NR)	$9	$19	–$10	S, T, F
Guo et al18 (B) (2020)	China	90	Async.	6 months	DOT (clinic)	$14	$73	–$59	T (Transport only†)
Holzman et al37 (2018)	USA	15/vehicle‡	Async.	6 months	DOT (field)	$775	$2373	–$1599	S, T, F
Krueger et al23 (2010)	USA	57	Sync.	5 months	DOT (field)	Incremental		–$3228	S, T
Lam et al35 (2019)	USA	81	Sync.	6 months - Calc.	DOT (clinic)	$1427	$1319	$108	S, T, F
				6 months - Calc.	DOT (field)	$1427	$3091	–$1664
		41	Async.	6 months - Calc.	DOT (clinic)	$1168	$1319	–$151
				6 months - Calc.	DOT (field)	$1168	$3091	–$1923
Nsengiyumva et al19 (2018)	Brazil	NR*	Sync.	6 months - DS	DOT (clinic)	$1107	$1815	–$709	S, D, T, F, I, O
				18 months - DR	DOT (clinic)	$21 817	$24 566	–$2748
				9 months - TBIG	SAT	$695	$117	$578
				9 months - TBIC	SAT	$681	$98	$584
Nsengiyumva et al20 (2023)	Moldova	173	Async.	6 months - DS	DOT (clinic)	$865 ($489)	$956	–$91 (–$467)	S, T, F, I
		135	Async.	9 months - DR	DOT (clinic)	$1300 ($737)	$1434	–$134 (–$697)
	Haiti	87	Async.	6 months - DS	DOT (clinic)	$2394 ($2251)	$859	$1535 ($1392)
	Philippines	119	Async.	9 months - DR	DOT (clinic)	$1918 ($1436)	$49	$1868 ($1387)
Siddiqui et al36 (2019)	USA	47	Async.	6 months - Calc.	DOT (field)	$4426	$5570	–$1145	S, T, F
Story et al21 (2019)	UK	50§	Sync.	6 months	DOT (clinic)	$2889	$10 010	–$7121	S, T, F
Wade et al22 (2012)	Australia	47§	Sync¶	5 months	DOT (field)	$2248	$2193	$55	S, T, F, O
						Societal costs per person treated
Beeler Asay et al34 (2020)	USA	63	Async.	6 months	DOT (field)	$2707	$7053	–$4347	S, T, F, I, P
				6 months	DOT (clinic)	$2707	$3274	–$567
		50	Sync.	6 months	DOT (field)	$1424	$7053	–$5629
				6 months	DOT (clinic)	$1424	$3274	–$1849
Nsengiyumva et al19 (2018)	Brazil	NR*	Sync.	6 months - DS	DOT (clinic)	$1402	$2438	–$1037	S, D, T, F, I, O, P
				18 months - DR	DOT (clinic)	$22 737	$26 645	–$3908
				9 months - TBIG	SAT	$931	$326	$605
				9 months - TBIC	SAT	$949	$353	$595
Ravenscroft et al24 (2020)	Moldova	155	Async.	4 months	DOT (clinic)	$34	$128	–$94	P (transport only)
Salcedo et al32 (2021)	USA	100§	Async. (AI)	8 mo **	DOT (clinic and field)	$3139	$5759	–$2619	S, D, T, F, P

Costs included S, staff; D, drugs and treatment; T, travel and supplies; F, fixed assets and technology; I, implementation; O, overhead; P, patient expenses.

TBI C Cohort modelled based on persons who were close contacts of persons with contagious TB disease. G Cohort modelled as unselected persons with TBI.

Cost in parentheses are calculated with fixed costs annuitised over a 5-year useful lifespan.

^*These patients were a modelled cohort.

^†Patients given funds to cover cost of roundtrip to clinic on public transportation.

^‡This study observed costs from 28 patients but modelled a clinic assuming 15 patients per vehicle used in field DOT.

^§These studies observed costs from 112 patients (Story et al21), 58 patients (Wade et al22), 43 patients (Salcedo et al32) and modelled clinics with 50, 47 and 100 patients, respectively, as base cases. These studies also provided multiple scenarios with varying patients per clinic not shown here. 5X/week DOT is shown for Story et al.21

^¶Study considers 5% of patients remaining on DOT even in the DAT case.

^**The model used observed treatment completion probabilities to model successful completion or required prolongation of treatment in each arm at the end of each month (minimum 5 months, maximum 16 months). Mean treatment durations in both groups were 8 months.

Async.asynchronousCalc.converted from per observation cost (see Methods)DOTdirectly observed therapyDRdrug resistantDSdrug susceptibleSATself-administered therapySMSshort message serviceSync.synchronousTBITB infection