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. 2024 Nov 1;15:9435. doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-53713-4

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — a Schematic diagram of the buried interface between the TiO₂ ETL and Sn-based perovskite layer. Oxygen desorption from OVs in the TiO₂ ETL accelerates the oxidation of Sn²⁺ to Sn⁴⁺ within the Sn-based perovskite. b EPR spectra of the TiO₂ ETL, confirming the existence of OVs. c High-resolution XPS spectra in the O 1 s region of the TiO₂ ETL, further supporting the existence of OVs. High-resolution XPS spectra of Sn-based perovskite films on (d) FTO and (e) FTO/TiO₂ substrates after aging for 14 days, respectively. This distinct difference observed suggests that desorbed oxygen from TiO₂ films leads to severe oxidation in Sn-based perovskites.