Table 1.
Cancers with high potential for bone metastasis and their respective tumor microbiome.
| Cancer type | % Bone metastasis | Underlying mechanisms for bone metastases | Tumor microbiome profile | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Breast cancer | ∼75 % | RANKL-dependent and independent osteoclastic differentiation of HSCs | Pseudomonas, Proteus, Sphingomonas yanoikuyae, Enterococcus, Cladosporium, Lactobacillus, Methylobacterium radiotolerans, Streptococcus | (Fu et al., 2022; Lucas et al., 2018; Ma et al., 2020b; Tzeng et al., 2021) |
| Parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTH-rP) | ||||
| connexin-43 gap junctions mediated regulation of intracellular Ca concentrations | ||||
| heterotypic adherent junctions (E-cadherin and osteogenic N-cadherin and OB-cadherin) | ||||
| Prostate Cancer | ∼70 % | PCa cells secrete OB-stimulating GFs: ET-1, adrenomedullin, FGFs, PDGFs, and BMPs | Cutibacterium acnes, Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria Monocytogenes, Xanthomonas albilineans, Pseudomonas, Escherichia, Acinetobacter | (Jiang et al., 2023; Kustrimovic et al., 2023; Ma et al., 2020a) |
| loss of tumor-intrinsic type-I IFN driving cancer cell progression | ||||
| Upregulates RANK-L expression in bone stromal cells | ||||
| Increased Activin A expression and thus expression of osteoblastic lesions | ||||
| Lung Cancer | ∼25–40 % | Increased EGFR expression and osteolytic factors: PTHrP, IL-11 | Modestobacter, Propionibacterium, Acinetobacter, Cyanobacteria, Enterobacteriaceae, Klebsiella, Veillonella, Megasphaera | (Greathouse et al., 2018; Zhou et al., 2017) |
| OCs support DTCs, proliferation via IL-19/IL-20RB/STAT3 axis | ||||
| OBs express SDF-1 that increases MMP-9 expression through CXCR4 mediated activation of MAPK/ERK pathway | ||||
| Renal cancer | ∼20–40 % | RC cells secrete PTHrP, TGF-β, increase RANKL production | Blautia, Streptococcus, Ruminococcus, Romboutsia, Eubacterium | (Piao et al., 2023; Umer et al., 2018) |
| Bone cells secrete PDGF, FGF, IGF therefore promoting RC cells migration | ||||
| increase expression of calcium sensing receptors |
HSCs: Hematopoietic stem cells, PTH-rP: Parathyroid hormone-related protein, Ca: Calcium, PCa: Prostrate cancer, GFs: Growth factors, ET-1: Endothelin-1, FGF: Fibroblast growth factor, PDGF: Platelet-derived growth factor, BMP: Bone morphogenic protein, IFN: Interferon, RANK-L: Receptor activator for nuclear factor kappa-B ligand, EGFR: Epidermal growth factor receptor, IL- Interleukin, OC: Osteoclast, DTC: Disseminated tumor cells, STAT3: Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3, OB: Osteoblast, SDF-1: Stromal cell derived factor-1, MMP: Matrix metalloproteinase 9, CXCR4: C-X-C Chemokine Receptor 4, MAPK/ERK: Mitogen-activated protein kinases/Extracellular signal-regulated kinase, RC: Renal cancer, TGF: Transforming growth factor, IGF: Insulin growth factor.