Empowering voices: A deep dive into translanguaging perceptions among Turkish high school and university language learners

Abstract

This study explores the perceptions of translanguaging among high school and university foreign language students in Turkey using a mixed-methods research design. 325 participants, comprising 155 high school and 170 university students, were surveyed to understand how translanguaging practices impact language learning, cultural integration, and academic performance. The study is grounded in Translanguaging Theory, Sociocultural Theory, and Pedagogical Translanguaging, emphasizing the fluid use of students' linguistic repertoires in language education. The findings reveal significant differences in perceptions based on gender, educational level, and age, highlighting the need for tailored translanguaging strategies to support diverse learner needs. This research contributes to the growing body of literature on translanguaging by providing empirical evidence from the Turkish educational context, offering insights into optimizing language teaching practices in multilingual settings.

1. Introduction

In the evolving language education landscape, translanguaging has become crucial for understanding and enhancing multilingual practices in educational settings [1]. Defined by García and Li [2] as the dynamic use of all linguistic resources available to bilingual or multilingual individuals, translanguaging goes beyond mere language switching to facilitate fluid and meaningful communication. This approach has gained prominence in contexts where linguistic diversity is prevalent, such as Turkey, where students in high school foreign language classes and university-level foreign language departments often navigate multilingual environments [3]. Turkey's educational landscape is unique because it demands innovative methods that leverage students' linguistic repertoires. Traditional monolingual ideologies in language education, which often focus on the target language to the exclusion of others, can overlook the cognitive and linguistic benefits that arise from utilizing students' full range of languages [4]. Pedagogical translanguaging offers a framework that aligns with this need, supporting the development of multilingual competencies by integrating students' existing language skills into the learning process [5]. This approach enhances language learning outcomes and promotes metalinguistic awareness and cognitive flexibility—skills essential for academic success in a multilingual world [6]. Recent research [[7], [8], [9]] has emphasized acknowledging and legitimizing students' natural multilingual practices. The traditional separation of languages within the curriculum has been increasingly challenged in Turkey, where English is taught as a foreign language. Incorporating translanguaging strategies within this context represents a significant shift, particularly in classrooms where students may already possess knowledge of multiple languages, including Turkish, English, and possibly a heritage language. Studies such as Yuzlu and Dikilitas [3] have explored the development of EFL learners' foreign language skills through translanguaging practices in Turkey, highlighting how these practices can enhance learning by allowing students to draw on their entire linguistic repertoire.

Similarly, Kırkgöz et al. [10] examined translanguaging in Turkish English-medium instruction (EMI) classrooms, identifying commonalities and differences across disciplines and underscoring the potential of translanguaging to facilitate academic discourse and content comprehension. Despite these advancements, there remains a need for further research on translanguaging in the Turkish educational context, particularly in understanding the perceptions of students across different educational levels. The present study seeks to fill this gap by exploring the perceptions of translanguaging among high school and university students in Turkey. This research aims to uncover the potential benefits and challenges of implementing translanguaging practices in Turkish educational settings by employing a comprehensive survey instrument to measure students' attitudes toward translanguaging. The study's findings will contribute to the growing body of literature on translanguaging by offering empirical evidence from a Turkish context, thus informing educational policies and practices that support multilingualism and linguistic diversity in the classroom. By grounding this research in the theoretical framework of pedagogical translanguaging, which posits that multilingual learners have unique cognitive and linguistic resources that can enhance learning outcomes when activated through instructional strategies [5], the study aims to provide insights into how these strategies can be effectively integrated into language education in Turkey. Ultimately, this research seeks to contribute to developing more inclusive and effective educational practices that embrace and utilize the full range of students' linguistic abilities.

2. Literature review

2.1. Translanguaging as pedagogy

The concept of translanguaging, which originated in Welsh bilingual education, has evolved significantly and is now recognized as a powerful pedagogical tool in multilingual classrooms worldwide. Initially coined by Cen Williams [11], translanguaging referred to using two languages in educational settings to develop balanced bilingualism among students. In its original context, translanguaging involved activities where students would receive input in one language and produce output in another, fostering deep cognitive engagement and enhancing bilingual competence [11,12]. Over the years, the concept has been broadened and adapted to various educational contexts, particularly in settings where linguistic diversity is the norm. As Cenoz and Gorter [6] explain, pedagogical translanguaging involves strategically using a learner's linguistic repertoire to support language and content learning. This approach is distinct from other forms of language alternation, as it is intentionally designed to leverage all of the languages the learner knows, thus promoting metalinguistic awareness and cognitive flexibility. According to these scholars, "pedagogical translanguaging goes beyond language alternation strategies by fostering an integrated use of languages to enhance learning processes" [6,13]. Pedagogical translanguaging is grounded in the recognition that multilingual students bring unique cognitive and linguistic resources to the classroom, which, when activated, can significantly enhance their learning experiences. García and Li [2] argue that translanguaging is not merely about language switching but "creating new meaning-making spaces that draw on all of the learner's linguistic resources". This perspective challenges traditional monolingual ideologies often dominating language education, particularly in settings where English is taught as a foreign language. English as a Foreign Language (EFL) instruction is about the dynamic and fluid use of linguistic resources that allows students to engage more deeply with content and develop stronger language skills. They assert that translanguaging "enables learners to use their full linguistic repertoire without the constraints of traditional language boundaries, thus fostering a more inclusive and effective learning environment" [2,14]. This perspective challenges the traditional monolingual ideologies that have dominated language education for decades, which often view the mixing of languages as a deficit rather than a resource [15]. In multilingual education, translanguaging serves several critical functions [16]. First, it supports the development of metalinguistic awareness, which is the ability to reflect on and manipulate language structures across different languages [17]. As noted by Cenoz and Gorter [5], this awareness is crucial for language learners because it enhances their ability to transfer knowledge from one language to another, improving overall language proficiency. They argue that "by softening the boundaries between languages, translanguaging practices enable students to draw on their full linguistic repertoire, thereby facilitating deeper understanding and more effective learning” [5,16]. Second, translanguaging promotes cognitive engagement by requiring students to process information across multiple languages actively. As described by Cen Williams [18], this process involves the simple translation of words and the internalization of concepts in one language and their subsequent expression in another. Such practices, according to Baker [12], “demand a high level of cognitive processing, as students must navigate the complexities of different linguistic systems, thereby reinforcing their understanding and retention of the material”. Moreover, translanguaging has enhanced students' academic performance by allowing them to access and use their entire linguistic repertoire to understand better and engage with academic content [19]. Research by García and Sylvan [4] demonstrates that when students are permitted to use their home languages alongside the target language, they are more likely to participate in class, comprehend complex concepts, and perform better on assessments. They conclude that “translanguaging practices empower students by validating their linguistic identities and providing them with the tools they need to succeed academically”. In the specific context of foreign language education, particularly in environments like Turkey, where English is taught as a foreign language, translanguaging offers a promising pedagogical approach. Traditional language teaching methods in such contexts have often adhered to strict language separation, emphasizing immersion in the target language. However, as noted by Cenoz and Gorter [6], this approach can be limiting, as it fails to recognize the cognitive and linguistic advantages that students bring from their existing language knowledge. They argue that “a pedagogical approach that integrates translanguaging can lead to more effective language learning outcomes, as it allows students to build on their existing knowledge and transfer skills across languages". Furthermore, integrating translanguaging in foreign language classrooms can help reduce language anxiety and increase students' confidence [20]. By allowing students to use their full linguistic repertoire, educators can create a more supportive and inclusive learning environment where students feel comfortable experimenting with language and taking risks [21]. This is particularly important in foreign language contexts, where students may feel intimidated by the pressure to perform in the target language [22]. As García and Li [2] highlight, “translanguaging fosters a sense of linguistic security, enabling students to approach language learning with greater confidence and enthusiasm”.

2.2. Translanguaging in the Turkish context

Yuzlu and Dikilitas [3] specifically examined translanguaging in developing EFL learners' foreign language skills in Turkish. Their study demonstrates that when students are encouraged to use their entire linguistic repertoire, including their native language, it leads to deeper comprehension and engagement in English learning. This research is particularly relevant as it provides empirical evidence from the Turkish context, highlighting the unique benefits of translanguaging in enhancing students' language proficiency and overall learning experience. Similarly, Kırkgöz et al. [10] explored translanguaging practices in Turkish EMI classrooms, finding that translanguaging aids in content comprehension and supports students in navigating complex academic discourse in a second language. Their work emphasizes translanguaging as a tool that facilitates understanding and enables students to express their ideas more effectively in English, especially in an academic environment.

Additionally, studies such as Küçükali and Koçbaş [23] have shown that translanguaging can serve as a bridge between students' existing linguistic knowledge and the target language. Their findings in the Turkish university indicate that translanguaging enhances communication and reduces language anxiety, promoting a more inclusive learning atmosphere. This suggests acknowledging and leveraging students' full linguistic resources can improve language learning outcomes. Kocer [24] further reviews the potential benefits and concerns of translanguaging pedagogy in Turkey, underscoring how it supports linguistic diversity while advocating for a balanced approach to avoid over-reliance on the first language. This comprehensive review highlights the adaptability of translanguaging practices in Turkish educational settings, suggesting that when implemented thoughtfully, translanguaging can significantly contribute to the learning process. Ergül [25] emphasizes the realities of translanguaging in Turkish EFL classrooms, revealing how using the first language can scaffold learning and clarify complex concepts, thereby reducing cognitive load. This practical perspective on translanguaging is crucial in understanding how educators can harness the full potential of students' linguistic repertoires to enhance the learning experience. The integration of translanguaging in Turkish educational settings has shown several benefits, including enhanced metalinguistic awareness and cognitive flexibility. Studies like Yuzlu and Dikilitas [3] and Kırkgöz et al. [10] indicate that translanguaging enables students to make meaningful connections between their native language and English, facilitating a deeper understanding of linguistic structures and improving language proficiency. These findings align with the dynamic model of multilingualism, which suggests that integrating multiple languages can enhance learning processes and support academic achievement. However, challenges persist, such as the risk of over-reliance on the first language and potential interference between languages. Yuvayapan [26] has pointed out these issues, emphasizing the need for careful implementation of translanguaging practices to avoid hindering the acquisition of the target language. Despite these concerns, the overall consensus in the literature suggests that the benefits of translanguaging in enhancing language learning, particularly in the Turkish context, outweigh the potential drawbacks. The growing body of research on translanguaging in Turkey illustrates its transformative potential in EFL education [3,10,23,24,[26], [27], [28]]. By incorporating insights from recent studies in the Turkish context, this literature review demonstrates how translanguaging practices not only support language proficiency but also promote metalinguistic awareness, cognitive engagement, and academic achievement. These findings underscore the importance of further exploring translanguaging practices in Turkey to fully understand their impact and optimize their implementation in diverse educational contexts. The following research questions were accordingly formulated.

• •How do high school and university students in Turkey perceive and experience translanguaging in their foreign language learning?
• •What are the differences in perceptions of translanguaging in terms of school level, gender, and age among foreign language learners in Turkey?

3. Methodology

This study employed a mixed-methods research design to explore the complex perceptions of translanguaging among high school and university foreign language students in Turkey. It focused on the impact of translanguaging practices on language learning, cultural integration, and academic performance. The research was firmly grounded in three vital theoretical frameworks: Translanguaging Theory, Sociocultural Theory, and Pedagogical Translanguaging. These frameworks guided the development of the survey instrument and the scenarios, ensuring a holistic examination of translanguaging from both cognitive and social perspectives. Since the participants were native Turkish speakers, the questionnaire and the scenarios were conducted in Turkish to ensure clarity and comprehension. This approach was crucial for obtaining accurate responses and minimizing language-related misunderstandings affecting data quality.

3.1. Theoretical framework

The theoretical framework for this study (as seen in Fig. 1) is grounded in Translanguaging Theory, which posits that bilingual and multilingual individuals fluidly and dynamically use their entire linguistic repertoire to make meaning, learn, and communicate [2]. Translanguaging challenges the traditional view of language learning as a linear process of acquiring separate languages. Instead, it presents a holistic approach where the boundaries between languages are softened, allowing learners to draw upon all their linguistic resources. This framework is supported by Sociocultural Theory [29], which emphasizes the role of social interaction and cultural tools in developing cognition and learning. Within this context, language is seen as a mediational tool that learners use to construct knowledge and make sense of their experiences. Translanguaging practices align with this perspective by allowing learners to use all available linguistic resources to scaffold learning, negotiate meaning, and engage in higher-order thinking. Additionally, Pedagogical Translanguaging [30] is a guiding principle in this study, highlighting the strategic use of students' complete linguistic repertoires to enhance learning processes. This approach promotes cognitive and metalinguistic awareness and supports an inclusive learning environment where linguistic diversity is recognized as an asset rather than a barrier.

Fig. 1.

Theoretical framework of the study.

3.2. Participants

This study employed a mixed-methods approach to explore the perceptions of translanguaging among high school foreign language students (N = 155) and university foreign language students (N = 170) in Turkey, yielding a total sample size of 325 participants. The study encompassed a diverse age range of 325 participants from 15 to 27 years old. The younger students, primarily high school participants aged 15–19, comprised 49.5 % of the total sample. Specifically, there were 14 participants aged 15 (4.3 %), 44 aged 16 (13.5 %), 63 aged 17 (19.4 %), 33 aged 18 (10.2 %), and 7 aged 19 (2.2 %). In contrast, the older students, predominantly university students aged 20–27, accounted for 50.5 % of the sample. This group included 36 participants aged 20 (11.1 %), 56 aged 21 (17.2 %), 44 aged 22 (13.5 %), 14 aged 23 (4.3 %), 8 aged 24 (2.5 %), 2 aged 26 (0.6 %), and 4 aged 27 (1.2 %). The influence of age on perceptions of translanguaging was evident, as the analysis revealed that younger students, particularly those in the 17–19 age bracket, tended to view translanguaging more positively than their older counterparts. This detailed breakdown of the age range enhances the clarity of the findings and highlights the importance of age in shaping attitudes towards translanguaging within different educational contexts.

The inclusion of high school and university students in this study is rooted in the desire to capture the nuanced dynamics of translanguaging practices across different educational stages. High school students often operate within a more structured and regulated language learning environment, focusing on foundational linguistic skills [31]. In contrast, university students typically engage with language in more complex, specialized, and academic contexts, where they may employ more sophisticated translanguaging strategies [2]. By examining both groups simultaneously, the study aims to illuminate how translanguaging perceptions and practices evolve from secondary to tertiary education, offering a developmental perspective on language acquisition [29]. This approach allows for a comparative analysis that reveals potential differences and commonalities in how students at different educational levels perceive and utilize translanguaging.

Additionally, including both groups provides broader insights into implementing translanguaging strategies across diverse educational settings, thereby informing pedagogical practices that can support language development at multiple stages. This comprehensive analysis aligns with the need for a holistic understanding of translanguaging in multilingual education [30] and contributes to a more informed framework for educators and policymakers. To ensure that high school students understood the concept of translanguaging, the researcher explained the term through micro-teaching sessions. During these sessions, the researcher provided detailed explanations and practical examples of translanguaging in the classroom. This educational intervention was essential to ensure students could engage with the questionnaire and scenarios meaningfully, offering more informed and thoughtful responses. These sessions were designed to bridge the gap between theoretical understanding and practical application, enhancing the overall quality of the participants' contributions. The study involved 325 participants, comprising 155 high school students and 170 university students. The participants were selected using a convenience sampling method deemed suitable due to practical considerations such as accessibility and willingness to participate. While this method may limit the generalizability of the findings, it allowed for including a diverse range of students from different educational settings. The participating institutions were exclusively public universities and high schools in Turkey, providing a focused representation of the public education sector. This selection allowed an in-depth exploration of translanguaging perceptions within public educational contexts. The high schools involved in the study were general education institutions, while the universities included language departments. This variety ensured that the sample included students with different levels of exposure to foreign language education, from general to specialized language programs.

3.3. Research framework

The research framework of this study integrates key factors to understand how translanguaging is perceived and experienced by Turkish high school and university students in their foreign language learning. It includes core elements such as translanguaging in language development, classroom practices, academic impact, and cultural awareness, mediated by demographic variables like gender, educational level, and age. Grounded in Sociocultural Theory and Translanguaging Theory, the framework emphasizes the dynamic and interactive nature of language use in educational settings. The application of this framework guided the study's data collection and analysis, providing a structured approach to exploring how students' individual characteristics and educational contexts influence their perceptions of translanguaging. It enabled an in-depth examination of the relationship between students' demographic factors and the academic and cultural benefits they associate with translanguaging practices. By focusing on these interactions, the framework facilitated a nuanced interpretation of how translanguaging can be effectively tailored and implemented in diverse educational contexts, particularly within the unique linguistic landscape of Turkey. This approach not only aids in understanding current translanguaging practices but also offers valuable insights for optimizing language education strategies to meet the needs of different learner groups better. Fig. 2 visually represents this research framework, illustrating how translanguaging interacts with key factors such as language development, classroom practices, academic impact, and cultural awareness. The diagram encapsulates these elements' dynamic and interconnected nature, emphasizing how translanguaging is a central mechanism that can influence and enhance various aspects of the language-learning process.

Fig. 2.

Research framework diagram.

4. Data analysis

4.1. Rationale for instrument development

A bespoke survey instrument was meticulously developed for this study to measure translanguaging perceptions. The development process involved multiple stages to ensure the instrument's validity and reliability. Initially, a comprehensive literature review was conducted to identify critical dimensions of translanguaging, which informed the creation of the survey items. These items aimed to capture various aspects of translanguaging, including its perceived impact on language learning, communication, and cultural awareness. The survey items also align with the core principles of Translanguaging Theory [2], Sociocultural Theory [29], and Pedagogical Translanguaging [30] (Fig. 1) by exploring how students utilize their entire linguistic repertoire in language learning, social interaction, and academic achievement. The items are designed to capture students' perceptions, confidence, and motivation in translanguaging, reflecting its role as a holistic and dynamic process that leverages linguistic diversity to enhance learning outcomes.

Table 1 presents the structure and reliability of the instrument designed to assess various dimensions of translanguaging practices. The instrument is divided into four subscales: Translanguaging in Language Development (Factor 1), Translanguaging in Classroom Practices (Factor 2), Academic Impact of Translanguaging (Factor 3), and Cultural Awareness through Translanguaging (Factor 4). Each subscale is grounded in established research, with references including key works such as García & Li [2], Cenoz & Gorter [30], Canagarajah [36], and Fang et al. [44]. The construct reliability (CR) values for the subscales range from 0.834 to 0.846, indicating strong internal consistency, while Cronbach's alpha (α) values between .74 and .77 further confirm the instrument’s reliability. This robust foundation ensures that the instrument effectively captures the multifaceted nature of translanguaging practices, making it a reliable tool for exploring its impact on language learning, classroom practices, academic performance, and cultural awareness. Following the initial item generation, expert consultation (N = 9) was sought to establish content validity. A panel of bilingual education and translanguaging experts reviewed the survey items, assessing their relevance, clarity, and comprehensiveness. Each item was rated using a Content Validity Index (CVI), with an Item-Level Content Validity Index (I-CVI) threshold set at 0.83 for inclusion. Items that achieved an I-CVI of 0.87 or higher were considered valid, ensuring the instrument accurately reflected the constructs it intended to measure. Based on the experts' feedback, several items were revised for clarity and relevance, and some were removed to avoid redundancy. Pilot testing was then conducted with a small group of students (N = 20) to evaluate the instrument's clarity, comprehensibility, and effectiveness. During this phase, participants provided feedback on any ambiguous or confusing items, which was used to refine the survey further. Given that the feedback led to only minor adjustments, the responses from the pilot participants were included in the final analysis, enhancing the overall sample size and contributing to the study's robustness. This process ensured that the final instrument was accessible and comprehensive, with high content validity confirmed through expert evaluation.

Table 1.

The instrument for data collection.

Content	Subscale	Item	Source for reference	CR	α
Factor 1	Translanguaging in Language Development	1–6	García & Li [2]; Carstens [32]; Cenoz & Gorter [30]; García-Mateus & Palmer [33]; Lewis et al. [34]; Liu et al. [35].	0.845	.76
Factor 2	Translanguaging in Classroom Practices	7–12	Canagarajah [36]; Palmer et al. [37]; Mazak & Carroll [38]; Nursanti [39]; Wong et al. [40]; García & Kleifgen [41].	0.834	.74
Factor 3	Academic Impact of Translanguaging	13–18	Cenoz & Gorter [5]; Cenoz & Gorter [6]; Nkhi & Shange [42]; Motlhaka & Makalela [43]; Bonacina-Pugh et al. [1]; Reyla [19].	0.839	.75
Factor 4	Cultural Awareness Through Translanguaging	19–24	Fang et al. [44]; Ishikawa [45]; Aden & Eschenauer [46]; Şanal & Özkaynak [47]; Makarova et al. [48].	0.846	.77

Note: CR = construct reliability; α = Cronbach’s alpha.

4.2. Scale development and validation

After these preliminary steps, the survey underwent rigorous factor analysis to ensure validity and reliability. The survey was administered to a diverse group of students, comprising 218 female and 107 male participants. The Kaiser-Maier-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was computed to be 0.937, indicating that the sample size was sufficient for factor analysis. Additionally, Bartlett's Test of Sphericity produced a significant chi-square value (X² = 7364.310, df = 496, p < .001), confirming that the data were suitable for factor analysis. Multiple exploratory factor analyses (EFAs) were conducted to examine the underlying structure of the instrument. Initially, all items were included in the analysis. Items were removed iteratively, one at a time, based on their factor loadings and communalities. This iterative process continued until a stable solution was achieved, wherein each item's factor loading was predominantly associated with a single factor, with a difference larger than 0.100 between loadings on different factors (see Table 2). This rigorous approach ensured that only the most relevant items were retained, enhancing the instrument's construct validity. As a result of this process, items D16, G28, H32, G25, E17, C9, C11, G26, and G27 were removed from the dataset due to their insufficient loadings or cross-loadings on multiple factors. The final factor structure of the scale was comprised of four distinct factors.

• •Perception of Translanguaging (Factor 1): Items reflecting students' general attitudes towards translanguaging.
• •Confidence in Translanguaging (Factor 2): Items measuring students' confidence in using translanguaging as a language learning strategy.
• •Academic Impact of Translanguaging (Factor 3): Items exploring the perceived academic benefits and challenges of translanguaging.
• •Cultural Awareness through Translanguaging (Factor 4): Items assessing the role of translanguaging in fostering cultural awareness and understanding.

Table 2.

Factor loadings.

Item	1	2	3	4
A4	0.768	0.468	0.537	0.306
A2	0.766	0.417	0.403	0.234
E20	0.742	0.504	0.503	0.279
B8	0.737	0.412	0.342	0.195
A3	0.73	0.426	0.365	0.314
E19	0.728	0.526	0.5	0.244
B6	0.699	0.363	0.32	0.26
E18	0.684	0.457	0.41	0.212
C12	0.683	0.513	0.57	0.41
A1	0.679	0.421	0.393	0.248
B7	0.671	0.404	0.405	0.374
C10	0.639	0.445	0.491	0.295
B5	0.446	0.273	0.235	0.188
F22	0.514	0.84	0.609	0.476
F24	0.506	0.838	0.631	0.552
F23	0.591	0.83	0.541	0.423
F21	0.398	0.695	0.481	0.381
H31	0.489	0.643	0.93	0.472
H29	0.499	0.59	0.843	0.52
H30	0.493	0.568	0.822	0.409
D14	0.339	0.505	0.463	0.853
D13	0.295	0.451	0.418	0.836
D15	0.321	0.41	0.434	0.707

4.3. Reliability analysis

The internal consistency of the scale and its subscales was evaluated using Cronbach's Alpha. The results demonstrated that the overall scale and its subscales were reliable, with Cronbach's Alpha values ranging from 0.842 to 0.931. These values indicate strong internal consistency and reliability across the factors, ensuring the instrument's robustness in measuring the constructs of interest. The reliability coefficients are detailed in Table 3.

Table 3.

Reliability coefficients.

Scale	Alpha
Total	.931
Factor 1	.914
Factor 2	.879
Factor 3	.893
Factor 4	.842

Cronbach's alpha values indicated that the scale total and all subscales were reliable and excellent, demonstrating the instrument's consistency.

4.4. Normality testing

The normality of the data was assessed using skewness and kurtosis measures to determine the appropriateness of parametric statistical tests. The results indicated that the overall scale and Factors 1, 2, 3, and 4 were normally distributed, with skewness values ranging from −0.37 to −0.27 and kurtosis values from −1.08 to −0.61. These values fall within the generally accepted range for normality (i.e., between −1 and +1), suggesting that the distributions of these factors are suitable for parametric analyses. Consequently, parametric t-tests were used to compare groups for these normally distributed factors. Table 4 summarizes the skewness and kurtosis values for the overall scale and each factor, confirming the normal distribution for most of the data. Since all factors exhibit values within acceptable limits for normality, it supports using parametric methods to analyze the data.

Table 4.

Skewness and kurtosis values.

Scale	Skewness	SE	Kurtosis	SE
Total	−0.35	0.14	−0.61	0.28
Factor 1	−0.31	0.14	−0.73	0.28
Factor 2	−0.37	0.14	−0.95	0.28
Factor 3	−0.29	0.14	−0.79	0.28
Factor 4	−0.27	0.14	−1.08	0.28

The skewness and kurtosis values were computed, with the highest values being −1.08 and −0.29, indicating approximately normal distributions for the scale total and all subscales. Therefore, parametric analyses were deemed appropriate to address the research questions. Gender and school groups were compared using t-tests, and Pearson’s Correlation Coefficients were computed to determine if age was significantly related to scale means.

4.4.1. Scenario technique

In addition to the quantitative data, qualitative data was collected using scenario-based techniques, which are well-suited for eliciting detailed and context-rich responses from participants. The purposive sampling technique was employed to select participants for the scenario-based interviews, aiming to provide a rich and nuanced understanding of students' perceptions of translanguaging. The selection criteria included students who demonstrated a range of experiences and backgrounds in language learning, ensuring diversity in age, gender, and academic level (high school vs. university). This approach was chosen to capture a broad spectrum of insights, reflecting the varied contexts in which translanguaging is practised. The sample was specifically chosen to include students who had actively engaged in translanguaging practices within their educational settings, as identified through initial survey responses. By focusing on participants with direct experience in translanguaging, the study aimed to delve deeper into how these practices are perceived and enacted in real classroom scenarios. This group of students was selected to provide a more detailed and context-rich source of information, enhancing the study's ability to explore the complexities of translanguaging in practice. The study aimed to gather in-depth qualitative data that complement the broader survey findings by providing a purposive sample with these characteristics. This approach allowed for a more comprehensive exploration of translanguaging, helping to uncover the nuances of how it is understood and utilized by students at different educational levels. These students were presented with scenarios related to translanguaging, and their responses were analyzed to uncover underlying themes and patterns. The qualitative data was subjected to descriptive analysis to identify the frequency and context of recurring themes. This approach allowed a nuanced understanding of how students perceive and engage with translanguaging in everyday language practices. Half-sentences related to translanguaging that participants could complete as part of the scenario technique are displayed below.

• •"When I switch between languages during class discussions, I feel that my understanding of the subject matter … "
• •"Using multiple languages in my learning process helps me connect with my classmates because … "
• •"If I could freely use all my languages in my studies, I believe that my confidence in participating in class would … "
• •"The ability to switch languages when explaining complex ideas makes me feel … "
• •"When I use different languages to complete assignments, I notice my ability to grasp difficult concepts … "
• •"If I were encouraged to use translanguaging in my exams, I think my performance would … "
• •"Switching between languages during group work helps me to communicate with others in a way that … "
• •"Using multiple languages to study different subjects allows me to understand cultural perspectives better because … "
• •"When I explain my thoughts in one language and then switch to another, I find that my ability to express myself … "
• •"In moments of uncertainty during class, being able to switch languages makes me feel … "

These prompts encourage participants to reflect on how translanguaging affects their learning experience, communication, and cultural understanding.

5. Findings and results

5.1. T-test for gender differences

The t-test analysis revealed significant differences between male and female students in their perceptions of translanguaging (as seen in Table 5). Specifically.

• •Item A4 (Perception of Translanguaging): Female students showed significantly higher agreement than male students (T = −2.10, p = 0.0368). This suggests that female students perceive translanguaging as more beneficial to their learning process than male students. This may be attributed to female students often reporting higher engagement and affective involvement in language learning, which can enhance their openness to innovative pedagogical practices like translanguaging (Cenoz & Gorter, 2020).
• •Item E20 (Cultural Awareness through Translanguaging): Female students scored higher than their male counterparts (T = −3.88, p = 0.000125), indicating that they believe translanguaging contributes more to their cultural understanding. This may be attributed to gender differences in cultural sensitivity and empathy, as female students often exhibit greater interest in cultural learning and cross-cultural communication (García & Li, 2014).

Table 5.

T-test results for gender differences.

Item	Female (Higher)	T-Statistic	P-Value	Interpretation
A4	Yes	−2.10	0.0368	Female students perceive a greater benefit in translanguaging.
E20	Yes	−3.88	0.000125	Female students see more cultural benefits from translanguaging.

5.2. T-test for school differences

Differences were also found between high school and university students (see Table 6).

• •Item B8 (Confidence in Translanguaging): University students reported significantly higher confidence in using translanguaging than high school students (T = −4.27, p = 0.0000258). This may be attributed to the more advanced language skills and greater exposure to diverse linguistic environments that university students typically have, which can foster confidence in using multiple languages (García & Sylvan, 2011).
• •Item C12 (Academic Impact of Translanguaging): University students also perceived a greater positive impact of translanguaging on their academic performance than high school students (T = −4.74, p = 0.00000314). This may be attributed to the more complex academic tasks and the higher cognitive demands faced by university students, making the integrative use of all linguistic resources more critical for academic success (Cenoz & Gorter, 2020).

Table 6.

T-test results for school differences.

Item	University (Higher)	T-Statistic	P-Value	Interpretation
B8	Yes	−4.27	0.0000258	University students report higher confidence in translanguaging.
C12	Yes	−4.74	0.00000314	University students perceive a greater academic impact of translanguaging.

5.3. ANOVA for age differences

The ANOVA analysis revealed that age significantly influences perceptions of translanguaging.

• •Perception of Translanguaging (General): The significant F-value (F(11, 313) = 2.997, p = 0.000823) indicates that younger students (ages 17–19) tend to perceive translanguaging more positively than older students. This may be attributed to younger students' greater adaptability and openness to new learning methods, as they are more likely to be familiar with and accepting of multilingual practices in their education (Canagarajah, 2013).

The ANOVA analysis revealed that age significantly influences perceptions of translanguaging (as given in Table 7, Table 8).

• •Perception of Translanguaging (General): The significant F-value (F(11, 313) = 2.997, p = 0.001) suggests that younger students (ages 17–19) tend to perceive translanguaging more positively than older students. This difference may be due to younger students' greater adaptability and openness to new learning methods, as they are more familiar with and accept multilingual practices in their education.

Table 7.

ANOVA results for age differences.

Age Group	F-Statistic	P-Value	Interpretation
17–19	2.997	0.000823	Younger students perceive translanguaging more positively.

Table 8.

Descriptive results for age groups.

Scale	Comparison	SS	df	MS	F	p	Differences
A1	Between Groups	35.043	11	3.186	2.997	.001	Younger students (ages 17–19) > Older students (p < .01)
	Within Groups	332.668	313	1.063
	Total	367.711	324
A2	Between Groups	62.996	11	5.727	6.849	.000	Younger students (ages 17–19) > Older students (p < .001)
	Within Groups	261.724	313	0.836
	Total	324.720	324

These findings highlight how demographic factors such as gender, educational level, and age influence perceptions of translanguaging. Female, university, and younger students generally express more positive views. The differences can be attributed to variations in language learning experiences, exposure to diverse linguistic environments, and cognitive flexibility, as supported by existing literature.

Table 9 presents a detailed examination of students' perceptions of translanguaging, highlighting the central tendencies and variabilities across various items related to language switching. The mean scores (M) across the items range from 2.49 to 2.93, indicating moderate agreement with the statements about translanguaging benefits. Specifically, the highest mean score (M = 2.93, SD = 0.91) corresponds to the belief that translanguaging benefits language learning. This suggests that students generally perceive some value in integrating multiple languages into their learning process. However, the standard deviations (SD) across all items, ranging from 0.91 to 1.10, suggest considerable variability in these perceptions, reflecting diverse experiences and attitudes towards translanguaging among the students. For instance, while some students may strongly believe in the advantages of translanguaging, others may be more sceptical or neutral. The items with lower mean scores, such as the belief that translanguaging enhances understanding of course materials (M = 2.52, SD = 1.00) or improves academic performance (M = 2.49, SD = 0.98), indicate that students might be less convinced about the direct impact of translanguaging on their academic success. Overall, the findings imply that while there is a recognition of the benefits of translanguaging, particularly in fostering communication and cultural understanding, there remains some uncertainty or mixed feelings regarding its effectiveness in enhancing learning outcomes. This variability underscores the need for more targeted strategies to demonstrate and leverage the potential of translanguaging in educational contexts.

Table 9.

Descriptive survey results.

Items	N	Minimum	Maximum	Mean	Std. Deviation
A3. I believe that translanguaging is beneficial for language learning.	325	1.00	5.00	2.9292	.90842
F22. I can communicate with a more diverse range of people by using translanguaging.	325	1.00	5.00	2.8892	1.05703
D13. I think that translanguaging helps me understand different cultures.	325	1.00	4.00	2.8708	.96637
F24. I can better connect with people from different cultures by using translanguaging.	325	1.00	4.00	2.8708	1.04020
B7. I believe that translanguaging helps me improve my language skills.	325	1.00	5.00	2,8492	.96803
F23. Translanguaging strengthens communication for me.	325	1.00	4.00	2,7785	1.01235
A1. I think that translanguaging helps me learn better.	325	1.00	5.00	2.7323	1.06532
F21. I believe that translanguaging enhances my social relationships.	325	1.00	4.00	2.7169	1.09988
H29. Translanguaging strengthens my language identity.	325	1.00	4.00	2.7169	1.02734
H31. I feel that translanguaging enriches my language identity.	325	1.00	4.00	2.7046	1.02687
D14. I feel that translanguaging makes me more sensitive to cultural differences.	325	1.00	4.00	2.6954	.99201
C10. I believe that translanguaging makes learning more enjoyable for me.	325	1.00	4.00	2.6923	1.08757
H30. I feel that translanguaging helps me better understand my language identity.	325	1.00	4.00	2.6892	.95195
A2. I understand better by using translanguaging.	325	1.00	5.00	2.6800	1.00111
C12. I believe that translanguaging makes language learning more interesting for me.	325	1.00	4.00	2.6738	.97725
D15. Translanguaging enhances my cultural understanding.	325	1.00	4.00	2.6615	1.08122
A4. I can understand topics more deeply by using translanguaging.	325	1.00	5.00	2.6492	1.04233
B6. I can communicate more effectively by using translanguaging.	325	1.00	5.00	2.6308	1.01485
B5. I feel more confident when switching between different languages.	325	1.00	5.00	2.5877	1.10380
E19. I feel that translanguaging improves my learning success.	325	1.00	4.00	2.5631	.93287
B8. I can communicate more fluently by using translanguaging.	325	1.00	5.00	2.5508	1.00679
E20. I understand course materials better by using translanguaging.	325	1.00	5.00	2.5169	1.00793
E18. I perform better in classes by using translanguaging.	325	1.00	5.00	2.4923	.98324
Valid N (listwise)	325

The data presented in Table 10 highlights that the most prominent theme among students is Improved Communication (C1), with 73.33 % of respondents indicating that translanguaging significantly enhances their communication ability. This is closely followed by Enhanced Understanding (C2) at 66.67 %, suggesting that most students find translanguaging beneficial for deepening their comprehension of the material. Increased Confidence (C3) also emerged as a key theme, with 63.33 % of students reporting that switching between languages boosts their confidence in classroom participation. Additionally, Academic Performance Improvement (C4) was noted by 60.00 % of students, indicating a positive impact of translanguaging on their academic outcomes. Better Cultural Awareness (C5) and Ease in Explaining Complex Ideas (C6) were acknowledged by 56.67 % and 53.33 % of students, respectively, reflecting the role of translanguaging in fostering cultural sensitivity and simplifying complex topics. Greater Engagement and Motivation (C7) were recognized by 50.00 % of the participants. At the same time, although less frequently mentioned, Enhanced Social Relationships (C8) were still noted by 40.00 % of students, indicating that translanguaging contributes to building stronger social connections among peers. These findings underscore the multifaceted benefits of translanguaging in educational contexts, particularly in enhancing students' communication, understanding, and confidence. The following sentences represent the remarks of the informants:

Table 10.

Descriptive interview results.

Code	Recurring Theme	Frequency	Percentage (%)
C1	Improved Communication	22	73.33 %
C2	Enhanced Understanding	20	66.67 %
C3	Increased Confidence	19	63.33 %
C4	Academic Performance Improvement	18	60.00 %
C5	Better Cultural Awareness	17	56.67 %
C6	Ease in Explaining Complex Ideas	16	53.33 %
C7	Greater Engagement and Motivation	15	50.00 %
C8	Enhanced Social Relationships	12	40.00 %

C1: Improved Communication (73.33 %)

• •"When I use my native language and English during group discussions, I can express my ideas more clearly and effectively."
• •"Translanguaging allows me to bridge the communication gap with classmates who may not be as fluent in one language, helping us collaborate better."
• •"Switching between languages helps me find the right words to convey my thoughts, making my communication more precise and understood by others."

C2: Enhanced Understanding (66.67 %)

• •"When I switch between languages, especially during complex lessons, my understanding deepens because I can think about the concepts in both languages."
• •"Translanguaging allows me to comprehend difficult topics by using my stronger language as a foundation, which supports my learning of the other language."
• •"Explaining ideas in one language and then processing them in another helps me see different perspectives, leading to a better grasp of the subject matter."

C3: Increased Confidence (63.33 %)

• •"Using multiple languages in the classroom boosts my confidence because I do not feel restricted to one language; I can express myself fully."
• •"Translanguaging makes me more willing to participate in class discussions because I can use whichever language I feel most comfortable with."
• •"Knowing that I can switch to my native language when I'm stuck in English makes me more confident in sharing my thoughts with the class."

C4: Academic Performance Improvement (60.00 %)

• •"My grades have improved since I started using translanguaging because I can explain my answers in both languages, ensuring that I cover all aspects of the topic."
• •"In exams, translanguaging allows me to use my full linguistic abilities to answer questions more thoroughly, which has positively impacted my performance."
• •"By thinking in multiple languages, I can solve problems more effectively, which has led to better academic outcomes."

C5: Better Cultural Awareness (56.67 %)

• •"Switching between languages helps me understand cultural nuances better, as I can compare how concepts are expressed differently in each language."
• •"Translanguaging has made me more aware of and sensitive to cultural differences, which is essential for understanding global perspectives."
• •"I have become more culturally competent because translanguaging encourages me to think about how language reflects cultural values and practices."

C6: Ease in Explaining Complex Ideas (53.33 %)

• •"When I explain complex ideas in both languages, I can break them down into simpler parts, making it easier for me to understand and for others to follow."
• •"Translanguaging helps me articulate intricate concepts because I can choose the language that best conveys the idea, often mixing terms to get the point across."
• •"Using multiple languages, I can approach complex topics from different angles, which helps explain them more clearly to my peers."

C7: Greater Engagement and Motivation (50.00 %)

• •"I feel more motivated to learn when I can use both languages in class, as it keeps the lessons interesting and relevant to my experiences."
• •"Translanguaging makes the learning process more engaging because I can connect new knowledge with what I already know in both languages."
• •"Being able to switch between languages keeps me actively involved in the lesson, as it challenges me to think more deeply and stay focused."

C8: Enhanced Social Relationships (40.00 %)

• •"Using multiple languages has helped me build stronger relationships with my peers, as we can communicate more freely and inclusively."
• •"I feel more socially connected when I can speak in both languages because it breaks down barriers and allows for more meaningful interactions."
• •"Translanguaging has allowed me to connect with classmates from different backgrounds, as we can share our thoughts in whichever language we are comfortable with."

These remarks and corresponding percentages provide a detailed understanding of how students perceive the impact of translanguaging on various aspects of their educational experience. The insights show that translanguaging enhances language learning and communication, boosts confidence, fosters cultural awareness, and strengthens social connections. The responses highlight the multidimensional benefits of translanguaging, making it a valuable pedagogical strategy in multilingual educational settings.

6. Discussion

The findings of this study shed light on the significant differences in the perceptions of translanguaging across various demographic groups, including gender, educational level, and age. These variations in perception are consistent with existing research on translanguaging, which underscores the complex interplay between individual characteristics and the effectiveness of multilingual educational practices. In the Turkish context, where translanguaging has been increasingly recognized as an effective pedagogical tool, these differences highlight the necessity of understanding and adapting teaching practices to the diverse needs of learners [3,10].

6.1. Gender differences in perceptions of translanguaging

The results revealed that female students perceive translanguaging as more beneficial than male students, particularly in enhancing language learning (Item A4) and fostering cultural awareness (Item E20). This gender difference aligns with prior research by García and Li [2], which suggests that female students often possess a greater degree of cultural sensitivity and empathy. Such traits may make female students more attuned to the cultural benefits of translanguaging, as they are likely to appreciate the role that multiple languages play in understanding and bridging cultural differences. Additionally, Cenoz and Gorter [6] note that female students report higher engagement and affective involvement in language learning. This increased engagement may explain why female students in this study demonstrated a stronger belief in the advantages of translanguaging. Moreover, female students' higher levels of agreement regarding the benefits of translanguaging could be linked to broader societal and educational trends. Research by Canagarajah [36] has shown that female students are often more receptive to pedagogical innovations, particularly those that challenge traditional, monolingual approaches to language education. This receptiveness could stem from the fact that translanguaging, as a practice, aligns with more inclusive and equitable educational principles, which resonate strongly with female students who are frequently socialized to value inclusivity and communication. Supporting this, Küçükali and Koçbaş [23] identified that in Turkish EFL classrooms, female students are more likely to engage in translanguaging practices, which helps to build their confidence and increase participation in discussions. Therefore, this study's findings reflect individual preferences and broader gendered patterns in educational experiences and attitudes. The gender differences identified in this study underscore the importance of designing translanguaging practices that resonate with female students' unique needs and strengths. As García-Mateus and Palmer [33] highlighted, translanguaging can empower female students by affirming their linguistic identities and fostering a deeper connection to their cultural heritage. In Turkey, where female students often navigate complex sociocultural dynamics, translanguaging provides an inclusive space that validates their multilingual abilities and cultural experiences [23]. By embracing translanguaging, educators can create more inclusive and supportive learning environments that validate all students' diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds, particularly those who may feel marginalized in traditional monolingual settings.

6.2. School differences in perceptions of translanguaging

The study also highlighted significant differences between high school and university students' perceptions of translanguaging. University students reported higher confidence in translanguaging (Item B8) and a greater perceived positive impact on their academic performance (Item C12) than their high school counterparts. This difference can be attributed to the more advanced language skills and greater exposure to diverse linguistic environments that university students typically possess. According to García and Sylvan [4], university students are often better equipped to navigate and utilize multiple languages effectively, which fosters their confidence in translanguaging practices. Similarly, Kırkgöz et al. [10] found that university students are particularly adept at using translanguaging to enhance comprehension of complex academic content, especially in EMI (English Medium Instruction) classrooms. Furthermore, university students face more complex academic tasks and higher cognitive demands, which may make the integrative use of all linguistic resources more critical for academic success. As Cenoz and Gorter [6] argue, translanguaging can play a crucial role in helping students manage these demands by allowing them to draw on their entire linguistic repertoire. Yuzlu and Dikilitas [3] observed that Turkish university students use translanguaging strategies to bridge gaps in their understanding of foreign language content, leading to improved academic performance and greater engagement in the learning process. This is particularly relevant in higher education settings, where students are often required to engage with complex, abstract concepts that may be more easily understood and articulated through multiple languages. The confidence reported by university students in this study could also reflect their greater autonomy and control over their learning processes. As noted by Lewis et al. [34], translanguaging can empower students by giving them the flexibility to use their linguistic resources in ways that best support their learning. This empowerment is likely more pronounced in university students, generally more experienced and self-directed learners. Koçer [24] further supports the role of translanguaging in Turkish universities, indicating that students utilize translanguaging practices to comprehend course material and facilitate interdisciplinary learning. Moreover, Karabulut and Dollar [27] argue that translanguaging in writing classes allows Turkish EFL learners to express themselves more effectively by drawing on their entire linguistic repertoire, thus enhancing their academic writing skills. The significant differences observed between high school and university students highlight the critical role that educational contexts play in shaping the effectiveness of translanguaging practices. University students, who typically have more advanced linguistic skills and greater exposure to diverse linguistic environments, are better positioned to leverage the full benefits of translanguaging. This finding aligns with Palmer et al.'s [37] assertion that translanguaging practices are particularly effective in higher education settings, where students must engage with complex academic content and navigate diverse cultural landscapes. Additionally, studies in Turkey emphasize the need for context-specific translanguaging strategies tailored to university students' disciplinary demands and linguistic backgrounds [10].

6.3. Age differences in perceptions of translanguaging

The ANOVA analysis revealed that younger students (ages 17–19) perceive translanguaging more positively than older students. This age-related difference may be attributed to younger students' greater adaptability and openness to new learning methods, as they are more familiar with and accept multilingual practices in their education [36]. Younger students are often more exposed to and comfortable with the fluid use of multiple languages, both in and outside the classroom, which may make them more receptive to translanguaging as a learning strategy. Additionally, younger students may be more likely to embrace translanguaging's cognitive and social benefits. According to Cummins [31], younger learners often possess more flexible cognitive structures, which allow them to switch between languages more easily and effectively. In Turkey, Dikilitaş and Öztüfekçi [3] showed that younger students engaged in collaborative translanguaging activities exhibit higher levels of engagement and a more positive attitude towards language learning. This cognitive flexibility and the social dynamics of younger students, who are often more open to diverse cultural interactions, may explain why they perceive translanguaging as a positive and beneficial practice. Yuvayapan [26] also highlights that younger Turkish EFL learners use translanguaging to understand the curriculum better and gain confidence in their language abilities. Ergül [25] adds that using translanguaging in classrooms with younger students helps scaffold learning by allowing them to utilize their first language to grasp complex concepts, thus reducing cognitive load. The positive perceptions of translanguaging among younger students could also reflect broader shifts in educational practices. As noted by Cenoz and Gorter [6], there has been a growing emphasis on multilingualism and integrating multiple languages in education. Younger students, who are more likely to have been educated in environments that promote these values, maybe more attuned to the benefits of translanguaging. This trend suggests that educational practices prioritizing multilingualism and cultural diversity are increasingly becoming the norm, particularly among younger generations. In Turkish education, this shift is evident in the increasing acceptance of translanguaging practices to enhance students' linguistic and cultural competencies [23,26].

6.4. Comparison with existing literature

The findings of this study contribute to the broader literature on translanguaging by providing empirical evidence of how demographic factors influence students' perceptions of this practice. The gender differences observed in this study align with previous research that highlights the greater receptiveness of female students to multilingual approaches [2]. The differences between high school and university students support the arguments of García and Sylvan [4] that advanced linguistic skills and exposure to diverse environments enhance the perceived benefits of translanguaging. Furthermore, in Turkish, Yuzlu and Dikilitas [3] and Kırkgöz et al. [10] reinforce these findings by demonstrating how translanguaging practices contribute to improved language proficiency and academic engagement across different educational levels. Finally, the age-related differences reinforce the idea that younger students are more adaptable to translanguaging practices, as they are more likely to have been socialized in educational contexts that value multilingualism and cultural diversity [36]. Yuvayapan's [26] work in Turkish EFL classrooms supports this, showing that younger learners benefit from the confidence-building aspects of translanguaging in their language development journey. Furthermore, the findings underscore the importance of considering demographic factors when implementing translanguaging practices in educational settings. As Cenoz and Gorter [30] argue, the effectiveness of translanguaging is not uniform across all students; rather, it is shaped by individual characteristics such as gender, age, and educational level. This suggests that educators should tailor their translanguaging strategies to their student's specific needs and characteristics, ensuring that these practices align with their linguistic abilities, cognitive styles, and cultural backgrounds. In Turkey, integrating translanguaging into classroom practices requires an awareness of students' diverse linguistic backgrounds and an acknowledgement of the complex sociocultural dynamics they navigate [24,25]. The findings also highlight the need for further research to explore the nuanced ways in which demographic factors influence the effectiveness of translanguaging. For example, future studies could investigate how other factors, such as socio-economic status, language proficiency, and cultural identity, interact with gender, age, and educational level to shape students' experiences with translanguaging. Such research could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the conditions under which translanguaging is most effective, helping educators to develop more targeted and effective pedagogical strategies. In the Turkish context, examining how translanguaging practices can be adapted to different regional and cultural contexts within the country would further enhance the understanding of its potential impact on EFL learners [3,10].

7. Conclusion

This study has shed light on the perceptions of translanguaging among Turkish high school and university students, revealing important differences based on gender, educational level, and age. The findings emphasize that female, university, and younger students generally have more favourable views towards translanguaging. These differences suggest that individual characteristics significantly influence how this pedagogical approach is accepted and its effectiveness. Female students' positive perceptions of translanguaging indicate that they may particularly benefit from strategies incorporating multiple languages, enhancing both cultural understanding and language learning. University students' higher confidence and perceived academic advantages from translanguaging underscore the importance of advanced linguistic skills and exposure to diverse linguistic environments. This highlights the need to foster environments in higher education that support the use of students' full linguistic repertoires. Moreover, the favourable attitudes of younger students towards translanguaging suggest its potential in educational settings that emphasize flexibility, adaptability, and multilingualism. These findings underscore the necessity for educators to tailor translanguaging practices to meet the specific needs of their students. By aligning these strategies with the unique characteristics of learners, educators can maximize the potential benefits of translanguaging. In Turkish, where students navigate multiple languages, such tailored practices can enhance language proficiency and cultural integration. In conclusion, translanguaging presents a promising tool for fostering communication, cultural awareness, and academic success. However, its effectiveness depends on thoughtful implementation, considering students' diverse needs and characteristics. This study contributes to the literature on translanguaging by highlighting the critical role of demographic factors in shaping students' experiences. Future research should investigate how translanguaging can be optimized across different educational contexts, mainly focusing on how demographic and cultural factors interact with translanguaging practices to enhance language education.

8. Implications

8.1. Theoretical implications

One of the key theoretical contributions of this study is the finding that demographic factors, particularly age and educational level, significantly influence students' perceptions of translanguaging. This underscores the need to consider demographic diversity when developing theoretical frameworks for translanguaging practices. The study's results suggest that younger students (aged 17–19) tend to be more receptive to translanguaging, indicating that age-related cognitive and developmental stages play a role in how translanguaging is perceived and utilized. This insight could inform future research on translanguaging by encouraging scholars to explore how demographic variables intersect with language learning processes. Additionally, this finding supports the integration of Sociocultural Theory, highlighting the importance of social and cultural contexts in shaping language practices. By acknowledging these demographic influences, future theoretical models can better account for the diversity of student experiences and attitudes towards translanguaging.

8.2. Pedagogical implications

From a pedagogical perspective, understanding the influence of demographic factors on students' perceptions of translanguaging can guide language teachers in tailoring their instructional approaches. Given that younger students in this study showed a more positive attitude towards translanguaging, teachers can leverage this openness by incorporating more translanguaging activities in secondary education to facilitate language learning. For older students or university settings where receptivity may vary, teachers might need to adopt a more gradual introduction of translanguaging practices, providing clear explanations of the benefits and creating a supportive environment that encourages experimentation with multiple languages. Moreover, the study's findings highlight the importance of creating age-appropriate translanguaging strategies. For younger students, activities integrating translanguaging more interactively and engagingly, such as group discussions or collaborative projects, could enhance their learning experience. For older students, particularly those in higher education, translanguaging can deepen critical thinking and enhance comprehension of complex academic content. Teachers can utilize these insights to design classroom activities that align with their students' demographic profiles, thereby maximizing the effectiveness of translanguaging as a pedagogical tool.

8.3. Utilization in the field

Language teachers can use these findings to understand better their students' readiness and willingness to engage in translanguaging. By considering the demographic composition of their classrooms, teachers can adapt their strategies to meet their students' specific needs and preferences. For example, knowing that younger students are more open to translanguaging can encourage teachers in secondary schools to introduce more bilingual materials and encourage students to draw on their entire linguistic repertoire during learning activities. In university settings, where students may be more diverse in receptiveness, educators can create tailored translanguaging opportunities that cater to different learning preferences, fostering an inclusive environment that supports all learners. By discussing these theoretical and pedagogical implications, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of how translanguaging practices can be adapted and implemented in diverse educational contexts, ultimately enhancing language teaching and learning outcomes.

Funding

This article has received no funding.

Data and code availability statement

Data will be made available on request.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.