FIGURE 1.

Trophic web of European scavengers and wolves. The consumers of vegetation (V) consist of two types of ungulates – deer (D) and boar (B) – and facultative scavengers (S). V represents vegetation and all other resources, including small prey of facultative scavengers, combined. The D species represent all Cervidae species, whereas the B represents wild boar (Sus scrofa). The S species represent all facultative scavengers, including vertebrates and invertebrates. Both D and B populations can be hunted, e.g., regular culling practices by humans. S species consume both D and B carrion, whereas B only scavenge on D carrion, i.e., we assume no cannibalism. Carrion from D is first consumed by B, then S. The large predator wolf (W) predates both on D and B, of which a fraction enters the carrion pool and is thus not consumed by W.