Table 3.

Caused Impacts by the Primary Land-Use Changes in the Study Area and Highland Andean Ecosystems Reported by Literature

		Effect
The main land-use changes	Drivers in the study area	Soil/land components & function	Ecosystem services
• Native “bofedales”/grasslands to Degraded “bofedales”/grassland	Fuel demand and inappropriate management (“champeo”, overgrazing)	SOM reduction a, erosion b, loss of plant diversity and soil degradation c,d, water retention d, loss of productivity e	↓ FWFP, ↓ CS, ↓ NC
• Native grasslands to cultivated grassland	Agricultural policy reforms	> soil aggregation and potential soil C sequestration f, > plant productivity and soil fertility f,g	↑ FWFP, ↑ CS, ↑ SF, ↑NC
• Native grasslands to maca crop	External market demand	Soils macroaggregate disruption f, > nutrient mineralization and soil fertility g	↑ FP, ↑ SF
• Maca crop to the fallow areas	External market demand	SOC reduction f, slow plant recovery f, > proneness to erosion and runoff f,g	↓ FWFP, ↓ CS, ↓ NC, ↓WR

^aAdler and Morales (1999), ^b Rolando and others (2017a), ^c Catorci and others (2014), ^d Cochi Machaca and others (2018), ^e Caro and others (2014), ^fRolando and others (2017b), ^gRolando and others (2018). Likely positive (↑) and adverse (↓) effects on provisioning (FWFP = food, wool, and fiber provision, FP = food provision), regulating (CS = carbon sequestration, WR = water regulation), and supporting (SF = soil fertility, NC = nutrient cycling,) ecosystem services are referred based on Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (Corvalán and others 2005). In bold are the processes directly and indirectly observed/measured in this study.