Table 4.

Diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers in HNC: effectiveness overview.

Biomarker	Diagnostic Use	Prognostic Use	Potential Effectiveness	Ref.
HPV DNA	Identifies HPV-associated HNC	Indicates better prognosis and response to treatment in HPV-positive cases	Highly effective for subclassification and prognosis	[72]
EGFR	Used for identifying tumours with EGFR overexpression	Associated with poor response to radiation and certain chemotherapies	Effective in selecting candidates for EGFR-targeted therapies	[73]
p16	Surrogate marker for HPV oncogenic activity	Suggests improved outcomes in HPV-positive HNC	Widely used, offers good prognostic value	[74]