Table 1.
Characteristics of included studies.
| Author (Year; Location) | Study Design/Follow up (Years)/Source of Data/Health Status |
Population/ Age/(Women/Men) |
Insomnia Assessment Method | Ultra-Processed Foods Assessment Method | Outcomes | Adjusted Variables | Quality Score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Zahedi et al. (2014, Iran) [31] | Cross-sectional study/CASPIAN-IV | N = 13,486/ Age = 12.47 ± 3.36 years/ (6640/6846) |
Study questionnaire | Dietary behavior questionnaire/Sweets, sweetened beverages, fast foods, and salty snacks | Higher sweetened beverages, fast foods, and salty snack consumption were associated with risk of insomnia | Age, sex, BMI, family history of chronic diseases, mother’s education, screen time, physical activity, socioeconomic status | 0.7 |
| Sadat et al. (2020, Iran) [32] | Cross-sectional study | N = 444/ Age = 31.77 ± 9.99 years/ (349/95) |
ISI | FFQ/Western dietary pattern | Higher adherence to Western dietary pattern was not associated with risk of insomnia | Age, sex, marital status, education, SES, BMI, smoking, physical activity GHQ score, energy intake | 0.6 |
| Beigrezaei et al. (2021, Iran) [27] | Cross-sectional study | N = 988/ Age = 14.52 ± 1.52 years/ (NR/NR) |
ISI | Dietary behavior questionnaire/Consumption of fried foods and snacks | Fried food and snack intake was not associated with risk of insomnia | Age, menstruation, parent’s death, parent’s divorce, parent’s employment status, physical activity, BMI, energy intake |
|
| Werneck et al. (2021, Brazil) [24] | Cross-sectional study/Adolescent School-Based Health Survey | N = 99,791/ Age = 14.3 years (range 11–19)/ (52,015/47,776) |
Study questionnaire | Study questionnaire/The NOVA classification | Higher UPF consumption was associated with risk of insomnia | Age group, ethnicity, food insecurity, country region, type of city, physical activity | 0.8 |
| Gaona-Pineda et al. (2021, Mexico) [28] | Cross-sectional study/National Health and Nutrition Survey |
N = 5076/ Age = 20–59/ (3340/1736) |
Study questionnaire | FFQ/Industrialized dietary pattern | Higher adherence of Industrialized dietary pattern was not associated with risk of insomnia | Age, sex, body mass index, rural/urban area type, geographical region, physical activity level, lifetime tobacco use, tertiles of well-being index, total energy intake | 0.6 |
| Karbasi et al. (2022, Iran) [26] | Cross-sectional study | N = 159/ Age = 20.9 ± 1.7/ (159/0) |
ISI | FFQ/Western dietary pattern | Higher adherence to Western dietary pattern was not associated with risk of insomnia | Age, BMI, WHR, depression, anxiety, stress, daytime sleepiness, cognitive abilities | 0.5 |
| Lane et al. (2022, Iran) [25] | Cross-sectional study | N = 733/ Age = 14.51 ± 1.57/ (NR/NR) |
ISI | FFQ/Australian processed food classification system | Higher UPF consumption was associated with risk of insomnia | Age, energy intake, BMI, physical activity | 0.6 |
| Duquenneet et al. (2024, France) [33] | Cross-sectional study/NutriNet-Santé study | N = 38,570/ Age = 50.0 ± 14.8 years/ (29,699/8871) |
DSM-5 and ICSD-3 |
Higher UPF consumption was associated with risk of insomnia | Age, sex, socio-professional category, BMI, marital status, physical activity level, sedentariness, smoking status, alcohol consumption, energy intake, healthy and Western dietary patterns, diagnosis or treatment for anxiety and depression |
0.8 |
Abbreviations. BMI, body mass index; FFQ, food-frequency questionnaire; GHQ, General Health Questionnaire; SES, socioeconomic status, DSM-5, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; ICSD-3, International Classification of Sleep Disorders—3rd Edition; ISI, Insomnia Severity Index; UPF, ultra-processed food; WHR, waist to hip ratio.