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. 2024 Oct 25;68:10.29219/fnr.v68.10792. doi: 10.29219/fnr.v68.10792

Table A1.

Studies on environmental impacts of dietary patterns mainly conducted in the Nordic countries

Reference Country Environmental data Dietary data Methods Environmental variables Dietary scenarios
Abadie et al. 2016 NO (27) GHGE data from production, transport, preparation and waste Norkost3 Average diet GHGE -
Bruno et al. 2019
DK (29)		 LCA from-cradle-to-fork, average GHGE on international level Food Balance Sheet by FAO Pre-defined diet scenarios GHGE Standard Danish, carnivore, vegetarian and vegan
Colombo et al. 2019; 2020
Elinder et al. 2020
SWE (71, 72, 77)		 LCA data on raw foods adjusted for waste (RISE) Annual observed school food supply Linear optimisation + school intervention GHGE
  • -

    Lowest achievable GHGE

  • -

    Minimised total relative deviation whilst imposing stepwise GHGE reductions,

  • -

    Further constrained for deviations of pair-wise ratios of 15 food groups
Hallström et al. 2021
SWE (24)		 Climate data based on LCA studies of foods representative for production of foods available on the Swedish market. Dietary intake from two population-based cohorts, by FFQ Analysis of dietary GHGE from different foods and by gender and age groups GHGE Current diet only
Hallström et al. 2022
SWE (31)		 LCA: primary production, processing, packaging, international transportation and edible food loss and waste along the food chain (including consumer waste) Swedish Mammography Cohort and
Cohort of Swedish Men, FFQ		 Observed diets GHGE, land use, nitrogen and phosphorus application, consumptive water use, extinction rate, planetary boundaries Current diet only
Hjort et al. 2020
SWE (39)		 LCA from published literature, system boundaries: primary production up to and including the retail phase Västerbotten Intervention Programme (VIP), FFQ Observed diets GHGE Observed diet in 1996 and 2006
Jalava et al. 2014
FIN (70)		 Water footprints of the crops: Mekonnen and Hoekstra 2011b, and animal products: Mekonnen and Hoekstra 2010. FAO food balance spreadsheet (2013). Modelling study Water use Diet scenarios:
  • -

    Recommended diet (RD) – stepwise protein from animal product reduction diets: A50, A25, A12.5 and A0.
Kyttä et al. 2023
FIN (43)		 Two LCA methods (Kuipers et al. 2021; Chaudhary and Brooks 2018) FinDiet 2017 survey (Valsta 2018); DIPP cohort, 2008 (Kyttälä); Adolescents survey2008 (Hoppu); Health2000 survey (Montonen); Food Balance Sheet 2016 (LUKE); Fineli food composition database 2018. Modelling study Biodiversity impact
Land use		 Four scenarios:
  • -

    Meat reduced to half

  • -

    Meat reduced to one-third

  • -

    Meat replaced with fish (including milk)

  • -

    Vegan diet
Mazac et al. 2022
FIN (66)		 Environmental impacts: AGRIBALYSE and World Food LCA Database. European food consumption database (EFSA). 2013 compiled from 34 national food consumption surveys (n = 66,492 individuals) in 22 European Union countries. Modelling study GHGE, land use, water use Modelled diets:
  • -

    Omnivore (animal-based foods allowed in modelling)

  • -

    Vegan

  • -

    Novel and Future food (novel and future foods such as insects and ovalbumin allowed in the model)

  • -

    All diets modelled in three models: minimised GHG, land use and water use.
Meinilä et al. 2022
FIN (35)		 GHG data
LUKE/Hartikainen et al. (unpublished)		 Automatically accumulating food purchase data of loyalty card holders, n = 22,860. Nutrient content from Fineli. Observed food purchase patterns by factor analysis, regression analysis to study the association between the patterns and GHG of the total purchases. GHGE Food purchase patterns based on 56 food groups
  • -

    Traditional

  • -

    High-energy

  • -

    Plan-based

  • -

    Animal-based

  • -

    Ready-to-eat

  • -

    Easy cooking
Martin and Brandão, 2017
SWE (54)		 Databases Ecoinvent and AGRIBALYSE was complemented with LCA peer-reviewed studies, whilst data on import, export and waste came from FAO balance sheets. FAO Food Balance Sheets, 2011 Modelling study GHGE, acidification, eutrophication, land use, toxicity and biodiversity Dietary scenarios:
  • -

    Dietary guidelines

  • -

    Reduced meat consumption

  • -

    Vegetarian diet

  • -

    Vegan diet

  • −

    200% increase in organic food consumption

  • -

    100% organically produced foods

  • -

    30% increase in foods produced in Sweden
Mertens et al. 2019
DK (data) (37)		 LCA from SHARP-Indicators Database DANSDA 2005–2008 Observed/current diet GHGE
Land use		 Danish average diet
Mertens et al. 2021
DK (data) (67)		 LCA from SHARP-Indicators Database DANSDA 2005–2008 Modelling study: optimisation using Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) to benchmark diets for improved adherence to FBDG GHGE Diet scenarios: observed, most preferred, healthiest (Nutrient Rich Diet Score) and most environmentally sustainable (GHGE)
Mertens et al. 2020
DK (data) (68)		 LCA from SHARP-Indicators Database DANSDA 2005–2008 Modelling study: optimisation using Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) to benchmark diets for improved adherence to FBDG GHGE As above but all substituted by similar use meat replacers with and without fortification
Mittenzwei et al. 2020
NO (49)		 LCA from different Norwegian sources Grønlund, A. 2015. NIBIO Rapport 14 (2015).
Norkost 3, Helsedirektoratet. 2015. Norkost 3. 18–70 år, 2011-11. Rapport IS-2000. Helsedirektoratet. Oslo.		 Diet scenarios CO2eq Different scenarios based on different changes in meat contents and adherence to Norwegian FBDG
Moberg et al. 2020
SWE (30)		 LCA data of impacts from cradle to retail in Sweden were summarised in a database (Moberg, 2019). Sources were, for example, World Food LCA database, Ecoinvent database, peer-reviewed LCA studies and LCA industry reports.
Water use from WaterStat database.		 Average direct consumption 2011–2015 (Swedish Board of Agriculture, 2019) Calculated the impact of current data and benchmarked it against the planetary boundaries as they are presented in Eat –Lancet. GHGE, land use N-application, P-application, Freshwater use
Extinction rate		 Impact of current diet only
Mogensen et al. 2020
DK (34)		 For beef: LCA from cradle until exiting slaughterhouse and from slaughterhouse until ready-to-eat. For other foods: literature of LCA studies from cradle to ready-to-eat, including transport, packaging, storage, food waste and cooking. DANSDA 2005–2008 Observed/current diet GHGE
Land use		 Dietary patterns by principal component analysis:
  • -

    Traditional

  • -

    Fast food

  • -

    Green

  • -

    High beef
Natural Resources Institute 2021 ScenoProt study FIN (76)
(See also Päivärinta et al., 2020 (73) Itkonen et al. 2021 (74) Pellinen et al. 2022 (75))		 LCA (Hartikainen unpublished/Natural Resources Institute FIN) 3 × 4-day food records, Fineli food composition database Intervention study GHGE Three diets with different ratios of animal to plant protein sources: 70:30, 50:50 and 30:70
Nordman et al. 2023
DK (69)		 Data from Trolle et al. 2022 Dietary survey data, Danish adults Quadratic modelling GHGE Optimised healthy and nutritionally adequate diet GHGE and departure from current diet
Risku-Norja et al. 2007
FIN (60)		 GHGE
land use, acid emissions, fuel and electricity consumption, the total material requirement of the diets		 Four scenarios:
  • -

    a nutritionally balanced diet,

  • -

    a mixed diet based on dairy cattle with no pigs and poultry

  • -

    a fish-vegetarian diet in which meat and eggs were substituted with vegetable products

  • -

    as the mixed diet but based on 50% organic production
Röös et al. 2020
SWE (58)		 LCA studies Meat intake from Riksmaten 2010–11 (Swedish Food Agency) Comparison of current consumption with an intake scenario GHGE
Land use		 Dietary scenario:
- Meat consumption reduced by 50% and replaced with legumes grown in Sweden
Saarinen et al. 2023
FIN (25)		 See Appendix 1 in End report of the FoodMin project FinDiet 2017 survey (Valsta 2018); DIPP cohort, 2008 (Kyttälä); Adolescents survey2008 (Hoppu); Health2000 survey (Montonen); Food Balance Sheet 2016 (LUKE); Fineli food composition database 2018. Modelling study: FoodMin dietary model (LUKE)
EnVit model (Seppälä ym. 2009, Nissinen ja Savolainen 2019).		 GHGE
Eutrophication
Food waste		 Four scenarios:
  • -

    meat reduced to half

  • -

    meat reduced to one-third

  • -

    meat replaced with fish (including milk)

  • -

    vegan diet
Sandström et al. 2017
FIN (45)		 Land use estimated as country, crop and time specific yields from FAO 2016. Blue water use estimated from crop and country specific water use coefficients from Mekonnen and Hoekstra, 2010 FAOSTAT commodity balances (FAO, 2016), domestic and traded commodities (traded feeds included). Study on the role of traded commodity supply (observed supply) Land use (area), blue water use Observed commodity supply with special interest in traded commodities
Saxe et al. 2013
DK (38)		 LCA Food Database (2004) http://www.lcafood.dk and supplementary data from the literature Modelling study; consequential Life Cycle Assessment. GHGE Average Danish Diet (ADD); diet based on the NNR; New Nordic Diet (NND)
Springman et al. 2018
GLOBAL (61)		 Global country and crop-specific environmental footprint data (described in Harwatt et al. 2023) - Country-specific food availability data (FAO) adjusted for food waste Global modelling study GHGE, cropland use, freshwater use and nitrogen and phosphorus application
  • -

    Reduction of animal-source foods following environmental objectives

  • -

    Improving calorie intake and weight levels following food-security objectives

  • -

    Using balanced diet patterns following public health objectives: flexitarian, pescatarian, vegetarian and vegan
Springmann et al. 2020
GLOBAL (33)		 Global country and crop-specific environmental footprint data (described in Harwatt et al. 2023) National FBDG (FAO),
FAO’s food balance sheets adjusted for the amount of food wasted at the point of consumption.		 Modelling study GHGE, cropland use, freshwater use and nitrogen and phosphorus application
  • -

    National food-based dietary guidelines

  • -

    EAT-Lancet guidelines

  • -

    Pesco-vegetarian diet

  • -

    Vegetarian diet

  • -

    Vegan diet
Strid et al. 2019
SWE (42)		 LCA from published literature, system boundaries: primary production up to and including the retail phase Västerbotten Intervention Programme (VIP), FFQ Sociodemographic differences in observed diet’s GHGE GHGE Current diet
Sundin et al. 2021
SWE (50)		 LCA, system boundaries: from primary production up to industrial processing, excluding packaging, emissions from land-use change (RISE Food Climate Database, Florénetal 2017) Overweight and obesity statistics of Sweden (SCB 2019), from which excess body fat and excess energy intake were estimated Observed excess body fat and excess energy intake GHGE Current excess energy intake
Trolle et al. 2022
DK (28)		 Data compiled by Aarhus University and DTU: Bottom-up approach: LCA from literature.
And data from the Big Climate Database, CONCITO and 2.-0 LCA Consultants:
Top-down hybrid approach.		 DANSDA (2011–2013) Pre-defined diet scenarios GHGE Danish Adapted Plant-Rich Diet, adherent to the EAT-Lancet reference diet
Valsta et al. 2022a
FIN (In: Kaljonen et al. 2022) (40)		 LCA (Seppälä et al. 2009) FinDiet 2017 (Valsta 2018), Finnish nutritional recommendations (2014)
Nutrient adequacy measured by a nutrient index with 10 components (Valsta et al. 2022, Appendix 2)		 Pre-defined diet scenarios and
Modelling study		 GHGE
Arable land
Economic sustainability: earnings
  • -

    The current nutrition recommendations

  • -

    1/3 or 1/2 of meat and dairy substituted with legumes, nuts and seeds, fish and plant-based dairy alternatives, and fruit and vegetables until 500 g/day of total intake
Vanham et al. 2017
FIN (56)		 Water footprints from the literature: Mekonnen and Hoekstra, 2011a, Mekonnen and Hoekstra, 2011b, and for fish Pahlow et al. (2015). For countries: FAO Food Balance Sheets/For cities: FINDIET 2007 Modelling study Water use Dietary scenarios:
  • -

    Average observed over 1996–2005

  • -

    Healthy, containing meat

  • -

    Healthy pesco-vegetarian-Healthy vegetarian
Vieux et al. 2018
European
FIN/SWE (data) (65)		 LCA from Hartikainen and Pulkkinen (2016) National surveys: FinDiet 2012 (FIN); Riksmaten 2010 (SWE); INRAN-SCAI-2005 (IT); NDNS 20018–12 (UK); INCA2 2006–7 (FR) Modelling study (linear programming by applying stepwise GHGE reductions) GHGE
  • -

    observed diet

  • -

    nutritionally adequate diet

  • -

    nutritionally adequate diet with minimised GHGE
Vieux et al. 2020
European FIN/SWE (data) (36)		 LCA from Hartikainen and Pulkkinen (2016) FinDiet 2012
Riksmaten 2010		 Observed dietary clusters GHGE Six clusters from which one was identified as ‘more sustainable’
Wallén et al. 2004
SWE (57)		 LCA studies on energy use and CO2 equivalents emissions from publications and data from food industry. Current food consumption, per capita (Statistics Sweden, 2001)
Intakes in Dahlin and Lindeskog’s definition of a sustainable diet (1999).		 Comparing current diet with scenario of sustainable diet by food group GHGE The sustainable diet scenario included higher consumption of pulses, vegetables, cereals, fruits, eggs and fish, whilst it simultaneously had lower consumption of meat and meat products, sweets, sugary drinks, cream, cheese and rice than the current diet
Wood et al. 2023
SWE (62)		 Mainly data from Moberg et al. 2020, and 2019 Current average Swedish diet as Moberg et al. 2020 (Average direct consumption 2011–2015 [Swedish Board of Agriculture, 2019]) Current diet – and iterative modelling GHGE, nitrogen and phosphorus application, consumptive water use, biodiversity loss and cropland use Iterative modelled more healthy and sustainable diet
Wright et al. 2023
NO (55)		 Database at University of Oslo, based on LCA data Dietary survey from 2019, based on a food frequency questionnaire Comparing current diet with modelled diets adjusted to 5.3 MJ/day Global warming potential, freshwater eutrophication, marine eutrophication, terrestrial acidification, water use and land use Modelled diets according to Norwegian FBDG and Eat-Lancet reference diet, adjusted to 5.3 MJ/day
Zucchinelli et al. 2021
DK (44)		 Water footprint for crop and livestock production in every import country of origin from Mekonnen and Hoekstra (2010, 2011). Food Balance Sheet (FAO, 2018), scientific literature and public health recommendations Comparison of current consumption pattern with pattern scenarios Total green and blue water footprint and blue water-scarcity footprint Current average Danish diet, and carnivore, vegetarian and vegan scenarios