Table 1. Hearing screening programmes for neonates and infants in non-Asian low-income and middle-income countries.
| Citation | First author and year | Country | No of samples screened | Service delivery model (hospital/community/school) | Screening test/tool used (stage 1+ stage 2+ stage 3) |
Person performing screening | Person performing diagnostic evaluation | Diagnostic test used | Site of diagnostic testing | Intervention details (medical/surgical/rehab) | Refer rate | Identification rate |
| Sub-Saharan Africa | ||||||||||||
| 76 | Ndoleriire et al, 2023 | Uganda – Sub–Saharan Africa (LI) | 1217 | Hospital | TEOAE+TEOAE | Midwives | Audiology technicians | Diagnostic ABR+OAE + Tymp | Hospital | NA | NA | 3.6% (2.2% unilateral, 1.4% bilateral) |
| 32 | Werkineh et al, 2022 | Ethiopia – Sub–Saharan Africa (LI) | 368 | Hospital | TEOAE+TEOAE If refer, TEOAE+AABR | Audiologist | NA | Diagnostic ABR+OAE + Tymp | Hospital | NA | 15.5% | NA |
| 45 | Abdullahi et al, 2022 | Nigeria – Sub–Saharan Africa (LMI) | 150 | Hospital | Otoscopy/TEOAE | Audiologist | NA | NA | NA | NA | 8% | NA |
| 36 | Seguya et al, 2021 | Uganda – Sub–Saharan Africa (LI) | 401 | Hospital | TEOAE+TEOAE+AABR | Nurse, ENT Resident | NA | NA | NA | NA | 25.4% | 1.10% |
| 54 | Bezuidenhout et al, 2021 | South Africa – Sub–Saharan Africa (UMI) | 121 | Hospital | (DPOAE) + (Otoscopy/DPOAE/tymp) | Audiologist | Audiologist | Diagnostic ABR | Tertiary academic hospital | NA | 47% | NA |
| 33 | Gina et al, 2021 | South Africa – Sub–Saharan Africa (UMI) | 2269 | Hospital | OAE/ABR | Audiologist | Audiologist | NA | NA | NA | ABR: 6.17%OAE: 71% | NA |
| 46 | Er et al, 2020 | Ghana – Sub–Saharan Africa (LMI) | 483 | Hospital | DPOAE | Audiologist | NA | NA | NA | NA | 5.5% | 7.20% |
| 34 | Kanji et al, 2018 | South Africa – Sub–Saharan Africa (UMI) | 272 | Hospital (PHC, MOU, nursery) | Nursery and MOU: (Otoscopy/DPOAE) PHC: (DPOAE/TEOAE) + AABR | Audiologist | NA | NA | NA | NA | MOU:0.74%PHC:36% | NA |
| 24 | Bezuidenhout et al, 2018 | South Africa – Sub–Saharan Africa (UMI) | 121 | Hospital | (Otoscopy/DPOAE) + (otoscopy/DPOAE/AABR/tymp) | Audiologist | Audiologist | NA | Audiology clinic | NA | 47.1% | NA |
| 37 | Kock et al, 2016 | South Africa – Sub–Saharan Africa (UMI) | 7452 | Community (MOU) | DPOAE+AABR | Trained non specialist screener | Audiologist | NA | Hospital | NA | AABR: 4.6%DPOAE: 7.0% | NA |
| 25 | Kanji et al, 2016 | South Africa – Sub–Saharan Africa (UMI) | 11 | Hospital | OAE+AABR | NA | Audiologist | Behavioural assessment (VRA) | NA | NA | 45.45% | NA |
| 47 | Walsh et al, 2015 | Uganda – Sub–Saharan Africa (LI) | 60 | Hospital (Local health centres) | TEOAE | NA | NA | Diagnostic ABR+OAE | Paediatric ear clinic | NA | 10% | NA |
| 48 | Dyk et al, 2015 | South Africa – Sub–Saharan Africa (UMI) | 150 | Hospital | TEOAE+TEOAE + AABR | Audiologist | NA | NA | NA | NA | AABR: 16.7%TEOAE: 37.9% | NA |
| 35 | Khoza-Shangase et al, 2015 | South Africa – Sub–Saharan Africa (UMI) | 272 | Community (MOU) | (Otoscopy/DPOAE) + (Otoscopy/DPOAE) | Audiologist | NA | NA | NA | NA | 11.14% | NA |
| 53 | Lasisi et al, 2014 | Nigeria – Sub–Saharan Africa (LMI) | 453 | Hospital | AABR+AABR | Audiologist | NA | NA | NA | NA | 44.7% | NA |
| 75 | Friderichs et al, 2012 | South Africa – Sub–Saharan Africa (UMI) | NA | Hospital (Immunisation, PHC) | DPOAE+DPOAE | Non specialist, nurses | Audiologist | NA | Hospital | NA | 9.5% | 4.5% (3% CHL, 1.5% SNHL) |
| 78 | Tanon-Anoh et al, 2010 | Cote d’Ivoire – Sub–Saharan Africa (LMI) | 1306 | Hospital | TEOAE+TEOAE | Trained specialist | Audiologist | Diagnostic ABR+OAE + Tymp | Hospital | NA | 21.9% | 5.96% |
| Latin America-Caribbean | ||||||||||||
| 50 | Chiriboga et al, 2021 | Brazil – Latin America and Caribbean (UMI) | 9941 | Hospital | Well babies: TEOAE+TEOAE + TEOAE NICU: (TEOAE/AABR) | Audiologist | Audiologist | NA | Hospital | NA | Well babies: 3.12%NICU babies:4.36% | Well babies: 0.04% NICU babies: 1.88% |
| 77 | Dutra et al, 2020 | Brazil – Latin America and Caribbean (UMI) | 1380 | Hospital | TEOAE+TEOAE | Trained specialist | Audiologist | NA | Hospital | NA | 1.9% | NA |
| 51 | Marinho et al, 2020 | Brazil – Latin America and Caribbean (UMI) | 3981 | Hospital | Well babies: OAE+OAE + OAE HRR: OAE+ABR | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 4.2% | NA |
| 38 | Olarte et al, 2019 | Colombia – Latin America (UMI) | 1646 | Hospital | TEOAE+TEOAE | Audiologist | Audiologist | NA | Hospital | NA | 1.6% | NA |
| 49 | Ospina-Garcia et al, 2019 | Colombia – Latin America (UMI) | 962 | Hospital | OAE+OAE + OAE | Audiologist | Audiologist | Diagnostic ABR | Hospital | NA | 7.17% | 4.4% (0.42% SNHL, 3.1% unilateral, 1.1% bilateral) |
| 56 | Wong et al, 2017 | Nicaragua – Latin America (LMI) | 640 | Hospital | (OAE) + (OAE/tymp) | Audiologist | Audiologist | Diagnostic ABR | Hospital | NA | 5.94% | NA |
| 57 | Lima et al, 2015 | Brazil – Latin America and Carribean (UMI) | 757 | Hospital (maternity hospital) | (DPOAE/cochlear eyelid reflex) + (DPOAE and Cochlear eyelid reflex) | Nurses | Audiologist | Diagnostic ABR+Tymp | NA | NA | 1.8% | NA |
| 26 | Bevilacqua et al, 2010 | Brazil – Latin America and Caribbean (UMI) | 11 466 | Hospital | TEOAE+TEOAE | Audiologist | NA | Diagnostic ABR+ASSR | Speech and hearing clinic | HA fitting: 8 children; rehabilitation process: 5 children | 22.3% | 0.096% (0.01% CHL, 0.002% SNHL) |
| Middle East and North Africa | ||||||||||||
| 55 | Omar et al, 2022 | Egypt – Middle east and North Africa (LMI) | 200 | Hospital | (Otoscopy/TEOAE) + TEOAE | NA | NA | Diagnostic ABR | Tertiary care hospital | NA | 4.5% | 1% |
| 79 | Nuseir et al, 2021 | Jordan – Middle east and North Africa (UMI) | 1595 | Hospital | (TEOAE/DPOAE) + (TEOAE/DPOAE) | NA | NA | Diagnostic ABR | Hospital | NA | 6.04% | 0.12% |
| 52 | Saki et al, 2017 | Iran – Middle East and North Africa (UMI) | 92 521 | Hospital | TEOAE+AABR | Audiologist | Audiologists | Diagnostic ABR+OAE | Hospital | NA | 1.25% | 0.24% (5% CHL, 87% SNHL) |
| 27 | Imam et al, 2013 | Egypt – Middle east and North Africa (LMI) | 150 (100 NICU babies and 50 full-term) | Hospital | TEOAE+TEOAE | Audiologist | Audiologist | Diagnostic ABR+Tymp | Hospital | Medical management (resolution of middle ear effusion) | NICU: 34%Well babies: 16% | NA |
AABRautomated auditory brainstem responseABRauditory brainstem responseASSRauditory steady-state responseCHLconductive hearing lossDPOAEdistortion product otoacoustic emissionsHAhearing aidsLIlow incomeLMIlower middle incomeMOUmidwife obstetric unitsNAnot availableNICUneonatal intensive care unitsOAEotoacoustic emissionsPHCpublic health centerSNHLsensorineural hearing lossTEOAEtransient evoked otoacoustic emissionsTymptympanometryUMIupper middle incomeVRAvisual reinforcement audiometry