Fig. 5.

Attenuation of ROS overproduction and ER stress contributes to the neuroprotective effects of PAE. A ROS inducer trimethylamine N-Oxide (TMAO) or ER stress activator tunicaymycin (Tu) blocked the effect of PAE (1.6 mg/mL) on cell viability determined by MTT assay, while the antioxidant N-Acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) or the ER stress inhibitor sodium 4-phenylbutyrate (4-PBA) mimicked the effect of PAE (1.6 mg/mL) on cell viability. Hoechst (B and C) and Calcein-PI staining (D and E) was performed to assess the cell loss in each group (bar = 100 μm). PAE inhibited the cell loss caused by MPP⁺, whereas TMAO or tunicaymycin attenuated the effects of PAE. NAC or 4-PBA mimicked the effects of PAE (B-E). Results are expressed as mean ± SD, n = 3, ^*p < 0.05, ^**p < 0.01, ^***p < 0.001, ^****p < 0.0001, vs. control group, ^##p < 0.01, ^###p < 0.001, ^####p < 0.0001, vs. MPP⁺ treated group, ^{^}p < 0.05, ^{^^}p < 0.01, ^{^^^^}p < 0.0001, vs. MPP⁺ + PAE group