Table 1. Summary of Typical Fiber Spinning and Patterning Techniques for Tissue Engineering Scaffolds and Bioelectronics.

technique		fiber patterning ability	fiber production mechanism	voltage (kV)	fiber resolution	exemplary applications
Far-field electrospinning33		None to coarse fiber alignment	Electrical field	∼10–15	100s nm to 1s μm	Bone regeneration scaffolds and on-skin electronics
In situ electrospinning23		None		∼10–15	100s nm to 1s μm	Fibrous mats for wound dressing
“Spray” spinning12		None	Air flow	0	100s nm to 1s μm	On-skin strain sensor
Rotary jet spinning25		Coarse fiber alignment	Centrifuge force	0	∼1 μm	Fibrous scaffolds for heart model
Touch spinning26		Coarse fiber alignment	Mechanical stretching	0	∼100s nm to 5 μm	Fibrous cell culture scaffolds
NFES (Near-field electrospinning) and variations	NFES34	Individual fiber patterning	Electrical field	∼1	∼50 to 5 μm	ECM-mimicking membranes
	Dynamic NFES35	Coarse fiber alignment	Dynamic electrical field	∼2.5	∼300 nm	Self-powered broadband acoustic sensor
LEP (Low-voltage electrospinning) and variations	LEP36	Individual fiber patterning	Mechanical stretching and electrical field	∼0.05–0.23	∼100 to 2.5 μm	Living material fibers, soft biological membranes
	3D-LEP37	Individual fiber patterning		∼0.1	∼3 μm	3D cell culture scaffolds
	Batch 3D-LEP38	Individual fiber patterning		∼0.1	∼2 to 4 μm	Batch 3D cell culture scaffolds
Inflight fiber printing39		Individual fiber patterning	Mechanical stretching	0	∼2 μm	3D optoelectronics, wearable sensor, and bioelectronics