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Changes in osteoblasts caused by aging. Osteoblasts were differentiated from BMSCs. With aging, the IGF-1 signaling pathway, Wnt signaling pathway, Hedgehog signaling pathway, and the ability of BMSCs to secrete Runx2 were weakened, which eventually led to the weakening of osteogenesis of BMSCs. In addition, decreased glutathione reductase in senescent osteoblasts led to ROS accumulation, which increased oxidative stress and ultimately accelerated osteoblasts apoptosis.
