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. 2024 Oct 9;20(11):7437–7452. doi: 10.1002/alz.13885

TABLE 4.

Associations of risk factors with cognitive outcomes (n = 3327), controlling for gender and age or gender, age, and depression, expressed as estimates from logistic regressions (subj. memory problems) or linear regressions (all other DVs).

Risk factor Covariates Visual working memory Cognitive flexibility Model‐based planning Subjective memory problems
β (SE) t P β (SE) t P β (SE) t P β (SE) z P OR [CI95%]
Depression Age + gender 0.15 (0.02) 8.23 <0.001 0.11 (0.02) 6.01 <0.001 0.07 (0.02) 3.72 <0.001 0.6 (0.04) 14.45 <0.001 1.82 [1.68, 1.97]
Low SES Age + gender 0.06 (0.02) 3.66 <0.001 0.08 (0.02) 4.87 <0.001 0.06 (0.02) 3.28 0.001 0.5 (0.04) 12.89 <0.001 1.65 [1.53, 1.78]
Age + gender + depression 0.01 (0.02) 0.28 0.778 0.05 (0.02) 2.62 0.009 0.04 (0.02) 1.91 0.056 0.33 (0.04) 7.86 <0.001 1.39 [1.28, 1.51]
Hearing handicap Age + gender 0.04 (0.02) 2.50 0.012 0.06 (0.02) 3.40 0.001 0 (0.02) 0.22 0.823 0.46 (0.04) 11.89 <0.001 1.59 [1.47, 1.71]
Age + gender + depression 0.01 (0.02) 0.30 0.767 0.03 (0.02) 1.85 0.064 −0.01 (0.02) −0.82 0.413 0.35 (0.04) 8.79 <0.001 1.43 [1.32, 1.54]
Loneliness Age + gender 0.07 (0.02) 4.06 <0.001 0.06 (0.02) 3.63 <0.001 0.03 (0.02) 1.70 0.089 0.42 (0.04) 11.08 <0.001 1.52 [1.41, 1.64]
Age + gender + depression −0.04 (0.02) −1.83 0.068 −0.01 (0.02) −0.46 0.648 −0.02 (0.02) −1.02 0.307 0.09 (0.05) 1.87 0.061 1.1 [1, 1.21]
Less education Age + gender 0.16 (0.02) 9.33 <0.001 0.14 (0.02) 8.34 <0.001 0.12 (0.02) 6.93 <0.001 0.33 (0.04) 9.01 <0.001 1.39 [1.3, 1.5]
Age + gender + depression 0.14 (0.02) 8.03 <0.001 0.12 (0.02) 7.40 <0.001 0.11 (0.02) 6.37 <0.001 0.26 (0.04) 6.77 <0.001 1.3 [1.2, 1.4]
Less exercise Age + gender 0.02 (0.02) 1.37 0.172 0.04 (0.02) 2.33 0.020 0.03 (0.02) 1.77 0.077 0.34 (0.04) 8.88 <0.001 1.41 [1.31, 1.52]
Age + gender + depression 0 (0.02) −0.07 0.941 0.02 (0.02) 1.30 0.193 0.02 (0.02) 1.14 0.256 0.26 (0.04) 6.63 <0.001 1.3 [1.2, 1.41]
Ever smoked Age + gender 0.06 (0.02) 3.23 0.001 0.07 (0.02) 3.98 <0.001 0.03 (0.02) 1.57 0.118 0.29 (0.04) 7.66 <0.001 1.33 [1.24, 1.44]
Age + gender + depression 0.03 (0.02) 1.77 0.077 0.05 (0.02) 2.94 0.003 0.02 (0.02) 0.90 0.371 0.2 (0.04) 5.16 <0.001 1.22 [1.13, 1.32]
Tinnitus Age + gender 0.01 (0.02) 0.52 0.604 −0.01 (0.02) −0.30 0.763 −0.03 (0.02) −1.40 0.162 0.28 (0.04) 7.31 <0.001 1.33 [1.23, 1.43]
Age + gender + depression −0.02 (0.02) −0.82 0.412 −0.02 (0.02) −1.29 0.196 −0.04 (0.02) −2.03 0.042 0.21 (0.04) 5.15 <0.001 1.23 [1.14, 1.33]
Small social network Age + gender 0.06 (0.02) 3.32 0.001 0.07 (0.02) 3.96 <0.001 0.03 (0.02) 1.61 0.108 0.24 (0.04) 6.49 <0.001 1.27 [1.18, 1.36]
Age + gender + depression 0 (0.02) 0.19 0.852 0.03 (0.02) 1.79 0.073 0 (0.02) 0.19 0.851 0.03 (0.04) 0.85 0.397 1.03 [0.96, 1.12]
History of stroke Age + gender 0.24 (0.07) 3.29 0.001 0.4 (0.07) 5.63 <0.001 0.06 (0.07) 0.74 0.461 0.61 (0.17) 3.65 <0.001 1.84 [1.34, 2.6]
Age + gender + depression 0.19 (0.07) 2.64 0.008 0.37 (0.07) 5.17 <0.001 0.03 (0.08) 0.43 0.666 0.46 (0.17) 2.65 0.008 1.58 [1.14, 2.25]
Family history of dementia Age + gender −0.02 (0.02) −0.95 0.340 0 (0.02) 0.13 0.897 0 (0.02) 0.11 0.909 0.11 (0.05) 2.25 0.024 1.12 [1.01, 1.23]
Age + gender + depression −0.02 (0.02) −0.93 0.353 0 (0.02) 0.16 0.876 0 (0.02) 0.13 0.896 0.12 (0.05) 2.40 0.016 1.13 [1.02, 1.25]
Diabetes Age + gender 0.12 (0.04) 3.18 0.002 0.09 (0.04) 2.52 0.012 0.01 (0.04) 0.14 0.889 0.17 (0.08) 2.11 0.035 1.18 [1.01, 1.38]
Age + gender + depression 0.1 (0.04) 2.72 0.007 0.08 (0.04) 2.17 0.030 0 (0.04) −0.08 0.934 0.1 (0.08) 1.25 0.211 1.11 [0.94, 1.3]
Hypertension Age + gender 0.09 (0.02) 3.65 <0.001 0.09 (0.02) 3.62 <0.001 0.02 (0.02) 0.82 0.410 0.07 (0.05) 1.45 0.146 1.08 [0.97, 1.19]
Age + gender + depression 0.08 (0.02) 3.18 0.001 0.08 (0.02) 3.27 0.001 0.01 (0.02) 0.59 0.553 0.03 (0.05) 0.53 0.594 1.03 [0.93, 1.14]

Note: Highlights indicate results significant after Bonferroni correction (p < 0.0038).