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a Normally, the amplitude of the S-wave exceeds that of the D-wave. As the RAP increases in tandem with RV dysfunction and tricuspid regurgitation, b in mild to moderate venous congestion, the amplitude of the S-wave diminishes, becoming less than that of the D-wave, and c in severe venous congestion, the S-wave reverses its position, rising above the baseline, while only the D-wave remains below the baseline. RAP, right atrial pressure; RV, right ventricle
