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. 2024 Nov 20;10:107. doi: 10.1038/s41526-024-00444-x

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

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Fig. 5 — a For most efficient volume change, a 5-min pump followed by a 15 min. recirculation is implemented in the media change regimen for the real experiment. b COMSOL simulation depicting media concentration profile and its (c) quantitative analysis. Note: Only three curves are visible due to the overlap of the top left and top right, as well as the bottom left and bottom right curves, which exhibit identical diffusion dynamics. d Real experiment replicating the COMSOL simulation using dye as new media for visualization and (e) intensity values of the real experiment showcasing the concentration gradient within the 5 min. pump and 15 min. recirculation in highlighted region.