Fig. 3.

A brief history of organoids and development of bone/cartilage organoids. The diagram outlines the key milestones in organoid research, beginning with the discovery in 1907 that dissociated sponge cells could self-organize, a foundational concept in this field. Over the decades, advances included the development of embryoid bodies (1960), the isolation of pluripotent stem cells (1981), and breakthroughs in generating organ-specific organoids such as intestinal (2009) and liver organoids (2013). The timeline also highlights the role of the extracellular matrix (1980s) in organoid development. Recent advances are marked by the generation of bone and cartilage organoids (2021), and the creation of osteochondral tissue using microcarriers and 3D bioprinting (2023). By 2024, Jiacan et al. employed a GelMA/AlgMA/HAP composite bioink to 3D bioprint large-scale biomineralized bone organoids, marking a significant leap in bone tissue engineering. The future of organoid technology points toward assembloids, which integrate multiple organoid types to mimic complex tissue interactions, offering potential for more sophisticated biological models and therapeutic applications