Table 2.
Characteristics of each included empirical study on health and discrimination against ethnically and racially minoritized groups residing in South Korea, categorized by immigrant status (N = 43).
| Author (Year) | Study population | Data source (representative sampling Y/N) | Exposure | Specific discrimination-related domain/contexts measured | Exposure measurea | Health outcome | Health outcome measurea | Statistically significant association between discrimination and health |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Marriage migrants | ||||||||
| Kim et al. (2022)70 | Marriage migrant women aged 19–65 originated from China, Vietnam, and the Philippines (n = 7685). | National Survey of Multicultural Families (2015) (Y) |
Perceived discrimination | None | Non-standardized single question | Life satisfaction | Single question | Yes (negative) |
| Cho et al. (2020)71 | Marriage migrant women aged 19–54 originated from Vietnam (n = 212). | Non-public (N) | Perceived discrimination | None | Everyday Discrimination Scale | Depressive symptoms | 10 items from the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression | Yes (positive) |
| Kim et al. (2020)72 | Marriage migrants with disabilities or with disabled family members aged >18 (n = 1066). The specific country of origin is not reported. |
National Survey of Multicultural Families (2018) (Y) |
Perceived discrimination | None | Non-standardized single question | Life satisfaction | Single question | No (unrelated) |
| Kim et al. (2020)73 | Marriage migrant women originated from China (including Korean Chinese), Vietnam, the Philippines, and Japan (n = 6960). | National Survey of Multicultural Families (2015) (Y) |
Perceived discrimination | None | Non-standardized single question | Good self-rated health | Single question | Mixed Yes (negative) for Han-Chinese, Vietnamese, Korean-Chinese, and Filipina participants No (unrelated) for Japanese participants |
| Park et al. (2019)74 | Marriage migrant women with a mean age of 36.6 (n = 12,414). The specific country of origin is not reported. |
National Survey of Multicultural Families (2015) (Y) |
Perceived discrimination | Discrimination experience in a list of places (i) streets or neighborhoods, (ii) stores, restaurants, banks, and so forth, and (iii) public offices (district offices, police stations, etc.) (iv) at workplace (v) school or childcare facility | Non-standardized questions | Depressive symptoms | Single question | Yes (positive) |
| Yi et al. (2018)75 | Marriage migrant women currently working in South Korea aged 19–64 originated from China (including Korean Chinese), Vietnam, the Philippines, Japan, and other countries (n = 8142). | National Survey of Multicultural Families (2015) (Y) |
Perceived discrimination | None | Non-standardized single question | Unmet healthcare needs | Single question | Yes (positive) |
| Kwon (2018)76 | Marriage migrant women with a mean age of 37.4 (n = 14,464). The specific country of origin is not reported. |
National Survey of Multicultural Families (2015) (Y) |
Perceived discrimination | None | Non-standardized single question | Life satisfaction | Single question | Yes (negative) |
| Kim (2016)77 | Marriage migrant women with a mean age of 32.0 originated from China, Vietnam, and other countries (n = 40,430). | National Survey of Multicultural Families (2009) (Y) |
Perceived discrimination | Discrimination experience in a list of places (i) streets or neighborhoods, (ii) stores, restaurants, banks, and so forth, and (iii) public offices (district offices, police stations, etc.) (iv) by landlords or real estate agents (v) at work | Non-standardized questions | Poor self-rated health | Single question | Yes (positive) |
| Kim et al. (2016)78 | Marriage migrants aged >19 originated from China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Japan, Taiwan, Mongolia, Thailand, Cambodia, Uzbekistan, South Asia (including Nepal, Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and Bhutan), East South Asia (including Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, and Laos), Russia, North America (including the United States of America and Canada), Western Europe (including Germany, England, Switzerland, Belgium, and the Netherlands), Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), and other regions (n = 14,406). | National Survey of Multicultural Families (2012) (Y) |
Perceived discrimination | None | Non-standardized single question | Poor self-rated health | Single question | Mixed Yes (positive) for female participants No (unrelated) for male participants |
| Kim (2016)79 | Marriage migrant women originated from China (including Korean Chinese), Vietnam, and the Philippines (weighted n = 165,451). | National Survey of Multicultural Families (2012) (Y) |
Perceived discrimination | None | Non-standardized single question | Good self-rated health | Single question | Yes (negative) |
| Ryu (2016)80 | Marriage migrant women with a mean age of 31.3 originated from China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Japan, Thailand, Cambodia, Mongolia, and other countries (n = 400). | Non-public (N) | Perceived discrimination | None | Major and Everyday Discrimination Scale | Physical health problem (headaches, insomnia, gastrointestinal symptoms, cardiovascular symptoms) and psychological distress (overall level of distress, including irritability, fatigue, numbness, anxiety, depressive symptoms, feelings of worthlessness, etc.) | For physical health problems: headache (4-item questionnaire), insomnia (4-item questionnaire), gastrointestinal symptoms (8-item questionnaire), and cardiovascular symptoms (8-item questionnaire) For psychological distress: Kessler psychological distress scale (K10) |
Yes (positive) |
| Kim et al. (2015)81 | Marriage migrants aged >19 originated from Western countries (US, Canada, western Europe, etc.), non-Western countries-Asia (China including Korean Chinese, Vietnam, the Philippines, Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Mongolia, Thailand, Cambodia, etc.), non-Western countries-others (Russia, Uzbekistan, etc.) (n = 14,485) | National Survey of Multicultural Families (2012) (Y) |
Perceived discrimination | Discrimination experience in a list of places (i) streets or neighborhoods, (ii) stores, restaurants, banks, and so forth, and (iii) public offices (district offices, police stations, etc.) (iv) at work (v) school or childcare facility | Non-standardized questions | Poor self-rated health | Single question | Mixed Yes (positive) for participants from non-Western countries and female participants, after full adjustment No (unrelated) for participants from Western countries except for discrimination at work and male participants, after full adjustment |
| Yun et al. (2015)82 | Marriage migrant women with a mean age of 30.80 originated from China (including Korean Chinese), Vietnam, the Philippines, and Cambodia (n = 3041). | National Survey of Multicultural Families (2012) (Y) |
Perceived discrimination | None | Non-standardized single question | Good self-rated health | Single question | Yes (negative) |
| Cho et al. (2014)83 | Marriage migrant women (n = 226,084). The specific country of origin is not reported. |
National Survey of Multicultural Families (2012) (Y) National Survey of Multicultural Families (2009) was used to compare participants' characteristics and their self-rated health |
Perceived discrimination | None | Non-standardized single question | Good self-rated health | Single question | Yes (negative) |
| Sung et al. (2013)84 | Marriage migrant women originated from China (including Korean Chinese), Vietnam, the Philippines (n = 55,877). | National Survey of Multicultural Families (2009) (Y) |
Perceived discrimination | Discrimination experience in a list of places (i) streets or neighborhoods, (ii) stores, restaurants, banks, and so forth, and (iii) public offices (district offices, police stations, etc.) | Non-standardized questions | Life satisfaction | Single question | Mixed Yes (negative) for Korean Chinse, Han Chinese and Vietnamese No (unrelated) for Filipina |
| Multicultural children and adolescents | ||||||||
| Ko et al. (2020)85 | Multicultural children and adolescents, ranging from elementary to high school students (n = 192). Their immigrant mothers originated from China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Japan, Mongolia, and other countries. |
Non-public (N) | Perceived discrimination | None | The Racism and Life Experience Scale | Subjective wellbeing (Subjective happiness) | Concise Measure of Subjective Well-Being Scale (9-item questionnaire) | Yes (negative) |
| Kim et al. (2019)86 | Multicultural children and adolescents aged 9–18 (n = 5476). The specific country of origin of their parents is not reported. |
National Survey of Multicultural Families (2015) (Y) |
Perceived discrimination | Discrimination experiences from five possible perpetrators: peers, teachers, extended family members, neighbors, and strangers | Non-standardized questions | Depressive symptoms | Single question | Mixed Yes (positive) for participants who experienced discrimination by friends and strangers in urban areas and participants who experienced discrimination by friends and neighbors in rural areas No (unrelated) for participants who experienced discrimination by teachers, extended family members, and neighbors in urban areas and participants who experienced discrimination by teachers, extended family members, and strangers in rural area |
| Seol et al. (2018)87 | Multicultural children with a mean age of 11.92 (n = 131). Their immigrant parents originated from China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Japan, Thailand, the United States, Mongolia, Uzbekistan, and Russia |
Non-public (N) | Perceived discrimination | None | Everyday Discrimination Scale | Self-esteem | Rosenberg Self–Esteem Scale (10-item questionnaire) | Yes (negative) |
| Yun et al. (2018)88 | Multicultural children and adolescents in 4th–6th grade (n = 684). The specific country of origin of their parents is not reported. |
Non-public (N) | Perceived discrimination | None | Perceived discrimination subscale from the Cultural Adaptation and Adjustment Scale | Life satisfaction | Spiritual Well-Being Scale (10-item questionnaire) | Yes (negative) |
| Kim et al. (2017)89 | Multicultural children and adolescents in 4th–6th grade (n = 204). The specific country of origin of their parents is not reported. |
Non-public (N) | Perceived discrimination | None | Everyday Discrimination Scale | Psychosocial maladjustment (anxious/depressed, social problem, rule-breaking behavior, aggressive behavior) | Child Behavior Check List (14-item questionnaire for anxious/depressed, 7-item questionnaire for social problems, 11-item questionnaire for rule-breaking behavior, 19-item questionnaire for aggressive behavior) | Yes (positive) |
| Park et al. (2016)90 | Multicultural children and adolescents aged 9–18 (n = 4141). Their immigrant parents originated from China (including Korean Chinese), Vietnam, the Philippines, Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Mongolia, Thailand, Cambodia, Russia, Uzbekistan, the European Union, the United States, Canada, and other countries. |
National Survey of Multicultural Families (2012) (Y) |
Perceived discrimination | Discrimination experiences from five possible perpetrators: peers, teachers, family members and relatives, neighbors, and strangers | Non-standardized questions | Depressive symptoms | Single question | Yes (positive) |
| Kim et al. (2011)91 | Multicultural children and adolescents of marriage migrant women in 3rd–6th grade (n = 113). Their immigrant mothers originated from China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Japan, and other countries. |
Non-public (N) | Perceived discrimination | None | Social, Attitudinal, Familial, and Environment Acculturative Stress Scale | Depressive symptoms and anxiety | 16 items from the Child Behavior Check List (16-item questionnaire for anxious/depressed) | Yes (positive) |
| Kim (2011)92 | Children of immigrant women (n = 120) and Korean children (n = 136) in 1st–6th grade. Their immigrant mothers originated from China (including Korean Chinese), Vietnam, the Philippines, Japan, and other countries. |
Non-public (N) | Perceived discrimination | None | Everyday Discrimination Scale | Psychosocial maladjustment (anxious/depressed, social problem, rule-breaking behavior, aggressive behavior) | 21 items from the Child Behavior Check List (14-item questionnaire for anxious/depressed, 7-item questionnaire for social problems) 4-item questionnaire for rule-breaking behavior, 6-item questionnaire for aggressive behavior |
Yes (positive) in the model with mediator (stress) |
| International students | ||||||||
| Kim et al. (2021)93 | Chinese international students (n = 133) and Vietnamese international students (n = 124). | Non-public (N) | Perceived discrimination | None | Non-standardized questions | Depressive symptoms and anxiety | 25 items from the Hopkins Symptom Checklist (15-item questionnaire for depressive symptoms, 10-item questionnaire for anxiety) | Yes (positive) |
| Suh et al. (2019)94 | Asian international students aged >18 originating from South-East Asia, East Asia, Middle-East, and West Asian regions (n = 121). | Non-public (N) | Perceived discrimination (personal rejection and unfair treatment) | None | Everyday Discrimination Scale | Depressive symptoms and anxiety | 20 items from the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression and 21 items from Beck Anxiety Inventory | Yes (positive) |
| Jin et al. (2019)95 | Chinese international students (including Korean Chinese) (n = 216). | Non-public (N) | Perceived discrimination | None | Non-standardized questions | Life satisfaction | 5-item questionnaire | Yes (negative) |
| Min et al. (2018)96 | International students with a mean age of 26.26 (n = 61). The specific country of origin is not reported (43 students were from Asia). |
Non-public (N) | Perceived discrimination | None | Everyday Discrimination Scale, Perceived discrimination subscale from Acculturative Stress Scale, discrimination related questions from College Student's Perceptions of Prejudice and Discrimination Scale | Depressive symptoms | 6 items from the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression | Yes (positive) |
| Park et al. (2017)97 | Chinese international students with a mean age of 21.3 (n = 400). | Non-public (N) | Perceived discrimination | None | Perceived discrimination subscale from Acculturative Stress Scale | Alcohol use disorder | Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (10-item questionnaire) | Yes (positive) with mediator (depressive symptoms) |
| Jin et al. (2011)98 | Chinese international students with a mean age of 23.03 (n = 201). | Non-public (N) | Perceived discrimination | None | Perceived discrimination subscale from Acculturative Stress Scale | Depressive symptoms | 20 items from the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression | Yes (positive) |
| Refugees | ||||||||
| Um et al. (2020)99 | North Korean female refugees residing in South Korea aged 19 years or older (n = 273). | Non-public (N) | Perceived discrimination (postmigration discrimination) | None | Everyday Discrimination Scale | Suicidal ideation | 5-item questionnaire for suicidal ideation | Yes (positive) |
| Noh et al. (2018)100 | North Korean refugees with a mean age of 36.19 (n = 500). | Non-public (N) | Perceived discrimination | None | Everyday Discrimination Scale | Life satisfaction | 5 items from the Satisfaction With Life Scale | Yes (negative) with mediator (stress) |
| Lee et al. (2016)101 | North Korean female refugees with a mean age of 39.2 (n = 87). | Non-public (N) | Perceived discrimination | None | The Racism and Life Experience Scale | Depressive symptoms | 20 items from the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression | Yes (positive) |
| Um et al. (2015)102 | North Korean refugees with a mean age 41.1 (n = 261). | National Survey on Family Violence (2010) (N) |
Perceived discrimination | None | Non-standardized single question | Depressive symptoms | 20 items from the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression | Yes (positive) |
| Cho (2011)103 | North Korean refugees aged >19 (n = 500) | Non-public (N) | Perceived discrimination | None | Major and Everyday Discrimination Scale | Depressive symptoms and anxiety | 25 items from the Hopkins Symptom Checklist (15-item questionnaire for depressive symptoms, 10-item questionnaire for anxiety) | Yes (positive) |
| Migrant workers | ||||||||
| Kim et al. (2022)104 | Migrant workers residing in South Korea with a mean age of 30.1, originating from Vietnam and Cambodia (n = 214). | Non-public (N) | Perceived discrimination | None | Social, Attitudinal, Familial, and Environment Acculturative Stress Scale | Depressive symptoms | 10 items from the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression | No (unrelated) This study analyzed moderation effect of social support on the relationship between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms, and perceived discrimination was not statistically significant. |
| Song et al. (2022)105 | Migrant workers who entered Korea under the Employment Permit System, originating from Vietnam, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Cambodia, Thailand, the Philippines, Mongolia, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Uzbekistan, China (excluding Korean-Chinese), Kyrgyzstan, and Pakistan (n = 1370). | Survey on Living Conditions of Foreign Workers in Korea (2013) (Y) |
Perceived discrimination | None | Non-standardized single question | Good self-rated health | Single question | Yes (negative) |
| Yu (2020)106 | Migrant workers originating from China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Uzbekistan, Indonesia, Cambodia, Nepal, North America, Europe, and Oceania (n = 4614). | Survey on Immigrants' Living Conditions and Labor Force (2018) (Y) |
Perceived discrimination | Discrimination experience in a list of places (street/neighborhood, stores/restaurants/banks, workplace) | Non-standardized questions | Life satisfaction | Single question | Mixed Yes (negative) for experiencing of discrimination in street/neighborhood and workplace No (unrelated) for experience of discrimination in stores/restaurants/banks |
| Choi et al. (2018)107 | Migrant workers with a mean age of 35.68 (n = 668). The specific country of origin is not reported. |
Non-public (N) | Perceived discrimination | Discrimination experience in a list of places (street/neighborhood, stores/restaurants/banks, workplace, transportation, etc.) | Non-standardized questions | Depressive symptoms | 5 items from the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (2-item questionnaire for depressed mood and 3-item questionnaire for malaise) | Yes (positive) |
| Others | ||||||||
| Chung et al. (2016)108 | Children and adolescents of immigrant women with a mean age of 12.52 (n = 164) and their immigrant mothers with a mean age of 41.23 (n = 164). Mothers originated from China (including Korean Chinese), Vietnam, the Philippines, Japan, Mongolia, and others. |
Non-public (N) | Maternal perceived discrimination | None | The Racism and Life Experience Scale | Adolescents' psychological adjustment (a combination of high levels of self-esteem and low levels of depressive symptoms) | Rosenberg Self–Esteem Scale (10-item questionnaire) for adolescents' self-esteem The Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (the number of items was not reported) for adolescents' depressive symptoms |
Yes (negative) with mediator (maternal depressive symptoms) |
| Lee et al. (2021)109 | Children and adolescents of immigrant women aged 11–18 (n = 2446) and their immigrant mothers (n = 2446). Mothers originated from China (including Korean Chinese), Vietnam, the Philippines, Japan, and other countries |
National Survey of Multicultural Families (2018) (Y) |
Children and adolescents' perceived discrimination; maternal perceived discrimination | None | Non-standardized single question | Children and adolescents' depressive symptoms | Single question | Mixed Yes (positive) between children and adolescents'’ perceived discrimination and their depressive symptoms No (unrelated) between maternal perceived discrimination and their children and adolescents' depressive symptoms |
| Choi et al. (2019)110 | Multicultural African family members residing in South Korea (n = 64). | Non-public (N) | Perceived discrimination | Discrimination experience in a list of places (street/neighborhood, stores/restaurants, public institutions, workplace) | Non-standardized questions | Life satisfaction | 4-item questionnaire | No (unrelated) |
| Ra et al. (2019)111 | Foreign residents aged >19, originating from Western countries (the United States or Canada), East Asia (China, Japan, Taiwan), and South Asia (Vietnam, Thailand, the Philippines, and Cambodia) (n = 1068). | Survey on Foreign Residents (2012) (Y) |
Perceived discrimination | None | Non-standardized single question | Depressive symptoms | 7 items from the Hopkins Symptom Checklist (7-item questionnaire for depressive symptoms) | Yes (positive) |
| Hong (2019)112 | Korean Chinese return migrants aged >18 (n = 292). | Non-public (N) | Perceived discrimination | None | Non-standardized single question | Depressive symptoms | 20 items from the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression | Mixed Yes (positive) for participants who had a stronger Korean identity No (unrelated) for participants who had a stronger Chinese identity |
a
When modified versions of scales were utilized, the originated scales were described here.