Table 2.
Association between characteristics of study participants and glycosylated hemoglobin level.
| Variable | Category | HbA1c (%, category) | Bonferroni | p | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ≤ 5.6 (n = 341, 40.0%) | 5.7–6.4 (n = 371, 43.5%) | ≥ 6.5 (n = 141, 16.5%) | ||||
| Sex | Male | 190 (45.2) | 156 (37.2) | 74 (17.6) | 0.001 | |
| Female | 151 (34.9) | 215 (49.7) | 67 (15.4) | |||
| Age (years, continuous) | 66.3 ± 4.6 | 66.5 ± 4.8 | 66.5 ± 4.8 | 0.733 | ||
| Age (years, category) | 59–64 | 142 (39.4) | 158 (43.9) | 60 (16.7) | 0.377 | |
| 65–69 | 114 (44.7) | 102 (40.0) | 39 (15.3) | |||
| ≥70 | 85 (35.7) | 111 (46.6) | 42 (17.7) | |||
| Education level | ≤Elementary school | 96 (34.0) | 137 (48.6) | 49 (17.4) | 0.047 | |
| ≥Middle school | 241 (42.7) | 232 (41.1) | 91 (16.2) | |||
| Alcohol use status | Never alcohol use | 169 (35.5) | 223 (46.9) | 84 (17.6) | 0.028 | |
| Former alcohol use | 14 (41.2) | 12 (35.3) | 8 (23.5) | |||
| Current alcohol use | 158 (46.1) | 136 (39.7) | 49 (14.2) | |||
| Smoking status | Never smoker | 194 (37.5) | 241 (46.6) | 82 (15.9) | 0.243 | |
| Former smoker | 116 (44.3) | 101 (38.6) | 45 (17.1) | |||
| Current smoker | 31 (41.9) | 29 (39.2) | 14 (18.9) | |||
| BMI (kg/m2) | 24.2 ± 2.9C | 24.9 ± 3.0B | 25.7 ± 2.8A | A-B*, A-C***, B-C** | <0.0001 | |
| SBP (mmHg) | 119.6 ± 16.0 | 120.1 ± 17.0 | 120.8 ± 14.5 | 0.748 | ||
| DBP (mmHg) | 74.5 ± 8.6C | 75.3 ± 9.2B | 72.7 ± 9.4A | A-B** | 0.011 | |
| Muscle mass (kg) | 43.1 ± 7.1C | 41.8 ± 7.7B | 44.4 ± 7.4A | A-B** | 0.001 | |
| HbA1c (%, continuous) | 5.3 ± 0.3C | 5.9 ± 0.2B | 7.4 ± 1.1A | A-B***, A-C***, B-C*** | <0.0001 | |
| FBG (mg/dL) | 92.4 ± 8.1C | 98.3 ± 12.8B | 144.0 ± 57.4A | A-B***, A-C***, B-C** | <0.0001 | |
| Insulin (μIU/mL) | 8.0 ± 3.1C | 9.7 ± 5.3B | 19.0 ± 37.9A | A-B***, A-C*** | <0.0001 | |
| Hb (g/dL) | 13.8 ± 1.4 | 13.6 ± 1.3 | 13.6 ± 1.5 | 0.159 | ||
| TC (mg/dL) | 196.9 ± 34.4C | 202.3 ± 40.5B | 187.2 ± 38.0A | A-B**, A-C* | 0.001 | |
| HDL-C (mg/dL) | 45.6 ± 11.0C | 44.0 ± 11.2 B | 41.2 ± 8.9A | A-B*, A-C** | 0.001 | |
| TG (mg/dL) | 122.7 ± 64.3C | 146.0 ± 76.7B | 161.5 ± 81.7A | A-C***, B-C*** | <0.0001 | |
| Homocysteine (μmol/L) | 14.9 ± 5.1C | 14.5 ± 5.9B | 15.3 ± 4.3A | 0.325 | ||
| Subjective health status | Bad | 63 (32.8) | 81 (42.2) | 48 (25.0) | 0.002 | |
| Fair | 159 (44.0) | 147 (40.7) | 55 (15.3) | |||
| Good | 119 (39.7) | 143 (47.7) | 38 (12.6) | |||
| Cognitive function | MMSE score | 26.5 ± 2.6C | 26.4 ± 2.6B | 25.7 ± 3.2A | A-B*, A-C* | 0.009 |
| MoCA score | 22.6 ± 3.8C | 22.5 ± 4.0B | 21.3 ± 4.8A | A-B**, A-C** | 0.002 | |
Categorical variables were analyzed using the chi-square test, and continuous variables were analyzed using the GLM. Superscript letters (a, b, c) denote the results of the Bonferroni multiple comparisons across groups. Statistically significant p values are indicated as *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.0001. MMSE, Mini-Mental State Examination; MoCA, Montreal Cognitive Assessment; BMI, body mass index; SBP, systolic blood pressure; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; HbA1c, glycosylated hemoglobin; FBG, fasting blood glucose; Hb, hemoglobin; TC, total cholesterol; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; TG, triglycerides.