Table 1. Characteristics of the participants.
Age groups: young adults (18-34 years), middle-aged adults (35-64 years), and elderly (65 years and older)
Brief COPE: the Japanese version of Brief Coping Orientation to Problems Experienced Inventory; HADS-D: the seven items related to depression from the Japanese version of Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; TIPI-J: the Japanese version of the Ten Item Personality Inventory
| Characteristics | All participants (n = 838) | Pre-pandemic depressive group (n = 458) | Pre-pandemic non-depressive group (n = 380) |
| Gender | |||
| Male (%) | 447 (53.34) | 258 (56.33) | 189 (49.74) |
| Female (%) | 391 (46.66) | 200 (43.67) | 191 (50.26) |
| Age | |||
| Mean ± SD | 42.87 ± 10.41 | 43.08 ± 10.51 | 42.62 ± 10.30 |
| Young adults (%) | 187 (22.32) | 98 (21.40) | 89 (23.42) |
| Middle-aged adults (%) | 629 (75.06) | 346 (75.55) | 283 (74.47) |
| Older adults (%) | 22 (2.63) | 14 (3.06) | 8 (2.11) |
| Occupation | |||
| Employed (%) | 629 (74.46) | 336 (73.36) | 288 (75.79) |
| Unemployed (%) | 214 (25.54) | 122 (26.64) | 92 (24.21) |
| Subjective economic status | |||
| Above average (%) | 466 (55.61) | 209 (45.63) | 257 (67.63) |
| Below average (%) | 372 (44.39) | 249 (54.37) | 123 (32.37) |
| COVID-19 infection history | |||
| Yes (%) | 290 (34.61) | 150 (32.75) | 140 (36.84) |
| No (%) | 548 (65.39) | 308 (67.25) | 240 (63.16) |
| TIPI-J | |||
| Extraversion | |||
| Mean ± SD | 6.66 ± 2.82 | 6.10 ± 2.65 | 7.32 ± 2.87 |
| High extraversion (%) | 295 (35.20) | 122 (26.64) | 173 (45.53) |
| Low extraversion (%) | 543(64.80) | 366 (73.36) | 207 (54.47) |
| Agreeableness | |||
| Mean ± SD | 9.90 ± 2.28 | 9.46 ± 2.39 | 10.43 ± 2.01 |
| High agreeableness (%) | 528 (63.01) | 255 (55.68) | 273 (71.84) |
| Low agreeableness (%) | 310 (36.99) | 203 (44.32) | 107 (28.16) |
| Conscientiousness | |||
| Mean ± SD | 7.67 ± 2.79 | 7.17 ± 2.75 | 8.26 ± 2.73 |
| High conscientiousness (%) | 540 (64.44) | 261(56.99) | 279 (73.42) |
| Low conscientiousness (%) | 298 (35.56) | 197 (43.01) | 101 (26.58) |
| Neuroticism | |||
| Mean ± SD | 8.72 ± 2.69 | 9.38 ± 2.46 | 7.92 ± 2.73 |
| High neuroticism (%) | 336 (40.10) | 218 (47.60) | 118 (31.05) |
| Low neuroticism (%) | 502 (59.90) | 240 (52.40) | 262 (68.95) |
| Openness | |||
| Mean ± SD | 7.65 ± 2.72 | 7.32 ± 2.63 | 8.05 ± 2.77 |
| High openness (%) | 319 (38.07) | 151 (32.97) | 168 (44.21) |
| Low openness (%) | 519 (61.93) | 307 (67.03) | 212 (55.79) |
| Brief COPE | |||
| Self-distraction | |||
| Mean ± SD | 5.28 ± 1.21 | 5.23 ± 1.16 | 5.33 ± 1.26 |
| High self-distraction (%) | 619 (73.87) | 341 (74.45) | 278 (73.16) |
| Low self-distraction (%) | 219 (26.13) | 117 (25.55) | 102 (26.84) |
| Active coping | |||
| Mean ± SD | 5.83 ± 1.03 | 5.64 ± 1.02 | 6.07 ± 0.99 |
| High active coping (%) | 584 (69.69) | 289 (63.10) | 295 (77.63) |
| Low active coping (%) | 254 (30.31) | 169 (36.90) | 85 (22.37) |
| Denial | |||
| Mean ± SD | 3.17 ± 1.17 | 3.34 ± 1.27 | 2.97 ± 1.02 |
| High denial (%) | 515 (61.46) | 297 (64.85) | 218 (57.37) |
| Low denial (%) | 323 (38.54) | 161 (35.15) | 162 (42.63) |
| Substance use | |||
| Mean ± SD | 3.43 ± 1.67 | 3.52 ± 1.70 | 3.32 ± 1.64 |
| High substance use (%) | 370 (44.15) | 222 (48.47) | 148 (38.95) |
| Low substance use (%) | 468 (55.85) | 236 (51.53) | 232 (61.05) |
| Using emotional support | |||
| Mean ± SD | 4.71 ± 1.46 | 4.53 ± 1.45 | 4.92 ± 1.44 |
| High using emotional support (%) | 427 (50.95) | 211 (46.07) | 216 (56.84) |
| Low using emotional support (%) | 411 (49.05) | 247 (53.93) | 164 (43.16) |
| Using instrumental support | |||
| Mean ± SD | 4.89 ± 1.47 | 4.73 ± 1.50 | 5.08 ± 1.42 |
| High using instrumental support (%) | 453 (54.06) | 222 (48.47) | 231 (60.79) |
| Low using instrumental support (%) | 385 (45.94) | 236 (51.53) | 149 (39.21) |
| Behavioral disengagement | |||
| Mean ± SD | 4.28 ± 1.23 | 4.53 ± 1.22 | 3.97 ± 1.16 |
| High behavioral disengagement (%) | 682 (81.38) | 399 (87.12) | 283 (74.47) |
| Low behavioral disengagement (%) | 156 (18.62) | 59 (12.88) | 97 (25.53) |
| Venting | |||
| Mean ± SD | 4.68 ± 1.36 | 4.70 ± 1.38 | 4.66 ± 1.34 |
| High venting (%) | 430 (51.31) | 237 (51.75) | 193 (50.79) |
| Low venting (%) | 408 (48.69) | 221 (48.25) | 187 (49.21) |
| Positive reframing | |||
| Mean ± SD | 5.27 ± 1.24 | 5.13 ± 1.22 | 5.45 ± 1.25 |
| High positive reframing (%) | 434 (51.79) | 214 (46.72) | 220 (57.89) |
| Low positive reframing (%) | 404 (48.21) | 244 (53.28) | 160 (42.11) |
| Planning | |||
| Mean ± SD | 6.07 ± 1.19 | 5.87 ± 1.22 | 6.31 ± 1.12 |
| High planning (%) | 635 (75.78) | 318 (69.43) | 317 (83.42) |
| Low planning (%) | 203 (24.22) | 140 (30.57) | 63 (16.58) |
| Humor | |||
| Mean ± SD | 3.91 ± 1.46 | 3.85 ± 1.47 | 3.98 ± 1.45 |
| High humor (%) | 513 (61.22) | 270 (58.95) | 243 (63.95) |
| Low humor (%) | 325 (38.78) | 188 (41.05) | 137 (36.05) |
| Acceptance | |||
| Mean ± SD | 6.04 ± 1.04 | 5.89 ± 1.05 | 6.22 ± 1.00 |
| High acceptance (%) | 658 (78.52) | 341 (74.45) | 317 (83.42) |
| Low acceptance (%) | 180 (21.48) | 117 (25.55) | 63 (16.58) |
| Religion | |||
| Mean ± SD | 3.38 ± 1.37 | 3.49 ± 1.41 | 3.24 ± 1.30 |
| High religion (%) | 548 (65.39) | 318 (69.43) | 230 (60.53) |
| Low religion (%) | 290 (34.61) | 140 (30.57) | 150 (39.47) |
| Self-blame | |||
| Mean ± SD | 5.01 ± 1.50 | 5.33 ± 1.48 | 4.63 ± 1.44 |
| High self-blame (%) | 467 (55.73) | 298 (65.07) | 169 (44.47) |
| Low self-blame (%) | 371 (44.27) | 160 (34.93) | 211 (55.53) |
| Pre-pandemic HADS-D | |||
| Mean ± SD | 8.66 ± 4.14 | 11.69 ± 3.09 | 5.01 ± 1.35 |
| Depressive (%) | 458 (54.65) | - | - |
| Non-depressive (%) | 380 (45.35) | - | - |
| Post-pandemic HADS-D | |||
| Mean ± SD | 8.60 ± 4.49 | 11.10 ± 4.09 | 5.60 ± 2.81 |
| Depressive (%) | 448 (53.46) | 376 (82.10) | 72 (18.95) |
| Non-depressive (%) | 390 (46.54) | 82 (17.90) | 308 (81.05) |