Table 1.
Publication characteristics of the included studies and associated risk factors of chronic kidney disease
| Author (Year) | Source of Funding | Country | Study Location (Rural/Urban) | Study Design | Study Duration | Comorbidities | Race | Risk factors for CKD |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dehghani (2022) [87] | None | Iran | Urban | Cross-sectional | Not reported | Obesity; Diabetes Mellitus; Cardiovascular disease; Hypertension; Hypertriglyceridemia; Hypercholesterolemia | Not reported | BMI ≥ 30 (n = 1024/9781; 10.5%) diabetes (n = 735/9781; 7.5%) hypertriglyceridemia (n = 1424/9781; 14.6%) history of cardiovascular disease (n = 349/9781; 3.6%) hypertension (n = 898/9781; 9.2%) LDL ≥ 130 (n = 1528/9781; 15.6%) history of kidney stone (n = 518/9781; 5.3%) hypercholesterolemia (n = 1167/9781; 11.9%) |
| Alramly (2013) [90] | None | Jordan | Not reported | Descriptive; Cross-sectional; Correlational | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported |
| Briganti (2002) [91] | None | Australia | Urban; Rural | Cross-sectional | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported |
| Dong (2021) [23] | Government | China | Urban | Observational Cohort | 10 years | Not reported | Chinese | Not reported |
| Hallan (2011) [28] | None | Norway | Urban | Prospective Cohort | 10.3 years | Not reported | Caucasian | Not reported |
| Huang (2016) [24] | Government | China | Urban | Cross-sectional | Not reported | Hyperuricemia; Hypertension; Diabetes; Cardiovascular disease | Chinese |
30 > BMI ≥ 25 (kg/m2) (n = 1003/24886; 4.0%) BMI ≥ 30 (kg/m2) (n = 134/24886; 0.5%) high triglyceride (n = 740/24886; 3.0%) high cholesterolemia (n = 1021/24886; 4.1%) Hyperuricemia (n = 1207/24886; 4.9%) Low HDL-C (n = 1110/24886; 4.5%) High LDL-C (n = 130/24886; 0.5%) High fasting plasma glucose (n = 351/24886; 1.4%) Drinking (n = 79/24886; 0.3%) Hypertension (n = 1841/24886; 7.4%) Diabetes (n = 629/24886; 2.5%) Cardiovascular disease (n = 945/24886; 3.8%) |
| Noborisaka (2013) [32] | Government | Japan | Urban | Retrospective Cohort | 6 years | Not reported | Japanese | Not reported |
| Sepanlou (2017) [92] | Institutional | Iran | Urban; Rural | Observational cohort | 2 years | Cardiovascular disease; Hypertension; Diabetes | Not reported | Not reported |
| Umesawa (2018) [33] | Not reported | Japan | Not reported | Observational cohort | 10 years | Not reported |
Japanese Non-Hispanic White Hispanic White African American |
Not reported |
| Xue (2014) [25] | None | China | Urban | Cross-sectional | 4 months | Cardiovascular disease; Diabetes mellitus; Hyperlipidemia; Hypercholesterolemia; Hyperuricemia | Chinese | Not reported |
| Yamagata (2007) [34] | None | Japan | Not reported | Prospective Cohort | 10 years | Proteinuria; Hematuria; Hypertension; Diabetes; Obesity; Hypercholesterolemia; Hypertriglyceridemia | Japanese | Not reported |
| Yang (2018) [26] | Not reported | China | Urban | Cross-sectional | Not reported | Diabetes; Stroke; Coronary heart disease; Peripheral Arterial Disease; Hypertension; | Chinese |
BMI category (n, %) Underweight (n = 113/31574; 0.4%) Normal (n = 1659/31574; 5.3%) Overweight (n = 1867/31574; 5.9%) Obese (n = 5718/31574; 18.1%) Alcohol status (n, %) Non-drinker (n = 6319/31574; 20.0%) Current drinker (n = 1299/31574; 4.1%) Ex-drinker (n = 1761/31574; 5.6%) CHD (n = 315/31574; 1.0%) Stroke (n = 608/31574; 1.9%) PAD (n, %) Yes (n = 143/31574; 0.5%) Suspected (n = 48/31574; 0.2%) DR Status (n,%) No DR (n = 5041/31574; 16.0%) Non-sight threatening (n = 1990/31574; 6.3%) Sight threatening (n = 1575/31574; 5.0%) Ungradable (n = 31/31574; 0.1%) |
| Anupama (2014) [37] | Industry | India | Rural | Cross-sectional | 11 months | Diabetes mellitus; Hypertension; Ischemic heart disease; Stroke | Indian |
BMI < 18 (n = 31/2091; 1.5%) 18–22.9 (n = 65/2091; 3.1%) 23–24.9 (n = 16/2091; 0.8%) > 25 (n = 19/2091; 0.9%) Hypertension (n = 78/2091; 3.7%) Diabetes (n = 80/2091; 3.82%) |
| Chang (2020) [39] | None | Taiwan | Not reported | Cross-sectional | Not reported | Hypertension; Diabetes; Dyslipidemia; Hyperuricemia/gout; Urinary tract stones; Cardiovascular disease; Cancer | Taiwanese |
BMI Underweight (n = 2762/297603; 0.9%) Normal (n = 36,575/297603; 12.3%) Overweight (n = 29,309/297603; 9.8%) Obese (n = 18,568/297603; 6.2%) Missing value (n = 1005/297603; 0.3%) Exercise habit No (n = 12,212/297603; 4.1%) Occasional (n = 28,282/297603; 9.5%) Regular (n = 41,105/297603; 13.8%) Missing value (n = 6620/297603; 2.2%) Alcohol drinking No (n = 86,177/297603; 29.0%) Yes (n = 1727/297603; 0.58%) Missing value (n = 315/297603; 0.1%) Hypertension (n = 47,553/297603; 16.0%) Diabetes (n = 19,802/297603; 6.7%) Dyslipidemia (n = 60,389/297603; 20.3%) Hyperuricemia/gout (n = 32,220/297603; 10.8%) Urinary tract stones (n = 1887/297603; 0.6%) Cardiovascular disease (n = 24,101/297603; 8.1%) Cancer (n = 478/297603; 0.2%) |
| Gjerde (2012) [29] | Institutional | Norway | Not reported | Cross-sectional | 1.5 years | Not reported |
Caucasian South American |
Not reported |
| Gummidi (2020) [38] | Industry | India | Rural | Prospective Cohort | Not reported | Hypertension; Diabetes; Heart disease; Obesity | Indian | Not reported |
| Lew (2017) [27] | Government | Singapore | Urban | Cross-sectional | 4 years | Hypertension; Diabetes mellitus; Cardiovascular disease; Stroke |
Chinese Indian Malaysian Other |
Not reported |
| Miguez-Burbano (2009) [41] | None | United States | Urban | Case–control | 1 year | Hypertension; Diabetes; Cancer; Hepatitis C; Hepatitis B | Black Caribbean | Not reported |
| Nakamura (2015) [35] | Government | Japan | Not reported | Observational cohort | 14.8 years | Diabetes; Proteinuria | Japanese | Not reported |
| Nitsch (2006) [30] | Government | United Kingdom | Not reported | Cross-sectional | Not reported | Obesity; Hypertriglyceridemia; Diabetes; | Caucasian | Not reported |
| Noborisaka (2013) [36] | Government | Japan | Not reported | Retrospective observational | 6 years | Not reported | Japanese | Not reported |
| Roseman (2017) [94] | Government | United States | Urban | Cross-sectional | Not reported | Hypertension; Diabetes; Albuminuria; Cardiovascular disease | Not reported | Not reported |
| Stengel (2000) [42] | Institutional | France | Urban | Case–control | Not reported | Hypertension | European | Not reported |
| Hallan (2006) [31] | None | Norway | Urban | Cross-sectional | 2 years | Diabetes mellitus; Cardiovascular disease; Hypertension; Obesity | Caucasian | Not reported |
| Kalyesubula (2017) [43] | Institutional | Uganda | Urban; Rural | Cross-sectional | Not reported | HIV-Infection; Diabetes; Hypertension; Proteinuria | African | Not reported |
| Korbut (2019) [81] | None | Russia | Not reported | Cross-sectional | 10 years | Diabetes; Diabetic retinopathy; Arterial hypertension; Coronary artery disease; Myocardial infarction in anamnesis; Chronic heart failure; Carotid atherosclerosis; Cerebrovascular event in anamnesis; Peripheral artery disease | Not reported |
Diabetic retinopathy (n = 131/360; 36.4%) Arterial hypertension (n = 184/360; 51.1%) Coronary artery disease (n = 99/360; 27.5%) Myocardial infarction in anamnesis (n = 36/360; 10.0%) Chronic heart failure (n = 11/360; 3.1%) Carotid atherosclerosis (n = 91/360; 25.3%) Cerebrovascular event in anamnesis (n = 24/360; 6.7%) Peripheral artery disease (n = 141/360; 39.2%) |
| Su (2015) [40] | Government | Taiwan | Urban | Case–control | 2 years | Obesity; Hepatitis B; Hepatitis C; Hyperuricemia; Anemia; Hyperlipidemia; | Taiwanese |
Obesity (n = 592/9138; 6.5%) Hyperuricemia (n = 1291/9138; 14.1%) Anemia (n = 863/9138; 9.4%) Hyperlipidemia (n = 1495/9138; 16.4%) Alcohol intake (ever) (n = 767/9138; 8.4%) Exercise habits (ever) (n = 3338/9138; 36.5%) Groundwater using (ever) (n = 293/9138; 3.2%) |
| Tohidi (2012) [44] | Government | Iran | Urban; Rural | Prospective Observational | 9.9 years | Diabetes mellitus; Hypertension; Cardiovascular disease | Iranian | Not reported |