Table 2.
Main findings on tobacco exposure, social determinants of health and chronic kidney disease
| Author (Year) | Total Sample Size | Sample Size (female) | Sample Size (male) | Mean (SD) or Range of Age Male in years | Mean (SD) or Range of Age Female in years | Diagnostic Method | CKD in females | CKD in males | Current/ Former/Never Smoking History (n and %) | Mean (SD) or Range of Pack Year Smoking History | Identified Risk Factors for CKD | Social Determinants of Health | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dehghani (2022) [87] | 9,781 | 4,860 | 4,921 | Not reported | Not reported | CKD (serum creatinine and eGFR < 60 ml/ min/1.73m2) | 1499 | 1186 |
Smoked (n = 2210; 22.6%) Never Smoked (n = 7571; 77.4%) |
Not reported | Smoking; Female sex |
Statistically significant protective factors against CKD: Higher education Not statistically significant association with CKD: Marital status |
|
| Alramly (2013) [90] | 161 | 69 | 92 | Not reported | Not reported | CKD (interview and medical files) | 47 | 45 |
Smoked (n = 75; 47%) Never Smoked (n = 86; 53%) |
Not reported | Male sex | Those with ESRD were significantly more likely to have a marital status of being single/divorced/widowed compared to married than those with CKD | |
| Briganti (2002) [91] | 11,247 | 5,910 | 5,337 | Not reported | Not reported | Renal impairment (eGFR < 60 mL/min/1.73 m2) | 3044 | 2588 |
Current Smokers (n = 2621; 23.3%) Non-Smokers (n = 8626; 76.7%) |
GFR ≥ 60: 18.1 ± 0.8 GFR < 60: 33.0 ± 5.7 |
Smoking; Male sex |
None | |
| Dong (2021) [23] | 141,516 | 78,078 | 63,438 | 63.07 ± 11.45 | 65.71 ± 11.78 | ESRD (ICD-9-CM or eGFR < 15 ml/min/1.73m2) | 5794 | 3315 |
Smoked (n = 5137; 10.87%) Never Smoked (n = 42,129; 89.13%) |
Not reported |
Smoking; Male sex |
None | |
| Hallan (2011) [28] | 65,589 | 34,911 | 30,678 | Not reported | Not reported | decrease of eGFR to 15 ml/min/1.73 m2 | 46 | 78 |
Current (n = 18,168; 27.7%) Former (n = 17,119; 26.1%) Never (n = 29,515; (45.0%) Unknown (n = 787; (1.2%) |
Former smoker: 11.4 ± 12.8 Current smoker: 14.5 ± 11.1 |
Smoking; Male sex |
Statistically significant risk factor for kidney failure: Higher education | |
| Huang (2016) [24] | 24,886 | 13,670 | 11,216 | Not reported | Not reported | CKD (NKF K/DOQI Guidelines) | 2409 | 1669 |
Smoked (n = 2455; 9.86%) Never Smoked (n = 22,431, 90.14%) |
Not reported | Smoking; Female sex | None | |
| Noborisaka (2013) [32] | 6,662 | 2,698 | 3,964 | 49.4 ± 7.8 | 50.2 ± 7.2 | CKD (GFR and proteinuria levels as per the new JSN criteria) | 418 | 559 |
Current (n = 2384; 35.8%) Former (n = 979; 14.7%) Never (n = 3299; 49.5%) |
Not reported | Smoking | Statistically significant risk factor for development of moderate to severe CKD: Miscellaneous job category | |
| Sepanlou (2017) [92] | 11,409 | 5,996 | 5,413 | 57.0 ± 8.3 | 55.5 ± 7.6 | CKD (eGFR < 60 ml/min/1.73m2) | 1588 | 1112 |
Smoked (n = 1871; 16.4%) Never Smoked (n = 9538; 83.6%) |
Not reported | Female sex | Statistically significant protective factors against CKD: Literacy, rural residence | |
| Umesawa (2018) [33] | 135,007 | 94,005 | 41,002 | 57.5 | 54.6 | eGFR < 45 mL/min/1.73 m2 and/or proteinuria by dipstick) | 10,358 | 6,106 |
Current (n = 23,541; 17.4%) Former (n = 12,233; 9.1%) Never (n = 99,233; 73.5%) |
Not reported | Smoking | None | |
| Xue (2014) [25] | 14,399 | 5,838 | 8,561 | 49.64 ± 16.65 | 48.13 ± 18.01 | eGFR < 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 | 619 | 747 | Not reported | Not reported | Smoking; Female sex | Statistically significant protective factors against CKD: Higher education | |
| Yamagata (2007) [34] | 123,764 | 82,752 | 41,012 | 61.8 ± 10.2 | 58.3 ± 10.0 | eGFR < 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 | 17,413 | 6,305 |
Current (n = 22,809; 18.4%) Former (n = 12,545; 10.1%) Never (n = 88,410; 71.4%) |
Not reported | Smoking | None | |
| Yang (2018) [26] | 31,574 | 15,649 | 15,925 | Not reported | Not reported | CKD (KDIGO guideline) | 4882 | 4504 |
Current (n = 4402; 13.9%) Former (n = 5574: 17.7%) Never (n = 21,572; 68.3%) |
Not reported | Smoking | Statistically significant protective factors against CKD: Higher education | |
| Anupama (2014) [37] | 2,091 | 1,138 | 953 | Not reported | Not reported | eGFR < 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 | 54 | 77 |
Smoked (n = 150; 7.2%) Never Smoked (n = 1941; 92.8%) |
Not reported |
Smoking; Male sex |
None | |
| Chang (2020) [39] | 297,603 | 144,260 | 153,343 | Not reported | Not reported | eGFR < 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 | 35,035 | 53,184 |
Smoked (n = 20,047; 6.7%) Never Smoked (n = 276,610; 93.0%) |
Not reported | Smoking | Widowed/divorced/separated or never married compared to married and poor socioeconomic status | |
| Gjerde (2012) [29] | 422 | 167 | 255 | Not reported | Not reported | eGFR < 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 | 16 | 13 |
Current (n = 190; 43.9%) Former (n = 243; 56.1%) Never (n = 0; 0%) |
Not reported | Female sex | None | |
| Gummidi (2020) [38] | 2,402 | 1,222 | 1,180 | 46.8 ± 13.99 | 44.57 ± 12.49 | CKD (KDIGO criteria) | 209 | 297 |
Smoked (n = 1032; 42.96%) Never Smoked (n = 1370; 57.04%) |
Not reported |
Smoking; Male sex |
Statistically significant protective factors against CKD: Higher education Not statistically significant association with CKD: Income, outdoor workers |
|
| Lew (2017) [27] | 88,765 | 47,331 | 41,434 | Not reported | Not reported | CKD (eGFR < 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 or 1 + dipstick proteinuria excretion) | 11,768 (95% CI: 24.5–25.3) | 11,247 (95% CI: 26.7–27.6) |
Smoked (n = 8562; 9.7%) Never Smoked (n = 80,203; 90.3%) |
Not reported | Male sex | Those of Malay ancestry were more likely and those of Indian ancestry were less likely to have CKD than those of Chinese ancestry | |
| Miguez-Burbano (2009) [41] | 536 | 230 | 306 | Not reported | Not reported | GFR < 60 ml/min/1.73 m2) | 23 | 52 |
Current (n = 296; 55.2% Former (n = 50; 9.3%) Never (n = 190; 35.5%) |
CKD: 12.7 ± 0.9 Non-CKD: 8.8 ± 1.3 |
Smoking; Male sex |
Black Caribbeans and African Americans more likely to have CKD than non-Black individuals | |
| Nakamura (2015) [35] | 34,622 | 19,154 | 15,468 | 57.4 | 58.0 | CKD (eGFR < 60 ml/min per 1.73 m(2)) and/or dipstick proteinuria) | 1054 | 1083 |
Current (n = 9685; 28.0%) Former (n = 4281; 12.4%) Never (n = 20,656; 59.6%) |
Not reported | Smoking | None | |
| Nitsch (2006) [30] | 6,317 | 3,217 | 3,100 | 51.8 ± 11.4 | 52.5 ± 11.4 | eGFR < 60 ml/min/1.73 m2 | 538 | 141 |
Current (n = 841; 27.1%) Not-current (n = 2259; 72.9%) |
Not reported |
Smoking; Female sex |
None | |
| Noborisaka (2013) [36] | 6,998 | 2,877 | 4,121 | 41.2 ± 9.7 | 42.3 ± 9.3 | Proteinuria (dipstick method) | 369 | 492 |
Current (n = 2085; 29.8%) Former (n = 537; 7.7%) Never (n = 4376; 62.5%) |
Not reported | Smoking | Occupation not associated with CKD | |
| Roseman (2017) [94] | 1,852 | 981 | 871 | 64.3 ± 9.2 | 63.9 ± 9.2 | eGFR < 45 mL/min/1.73 m2 | 58 | 62 |
Current (n = 343; 18.5%) Former (n = 573; 31.0%) Never (n = 936; 50.5%) |
Not reported |
Smoking; Male sex |
None | |
| Stengel (2000) [42] | 537 | 197 | 340 | Not reported | Not reported | serum creatinine > 150 micromole/L | 17 | 57 |
Smoked (n = 272; 50.6%) Never smoked (n = 265; 49.4%) |
Not reported |
Smoking; Male sex |
None | |
| Hallan (2006) [31] | 65,193 | 34,708 | 30,485 | Not reported | Not reported | eGFR < 45 mL/min/1.73 m2 | 375 | 246 |
Smoked (n = 36,358; 55.8%) Never smoked (n = 28,835; 44.2%) |
GFR ≥ 45: 6.9 ± 10.8 GFR < 45: 8.5 ± 16.1 |
Smoking | None | |
| Kalyesubula (2017) [43] | 955 | 640 | 315 | 30 (24–40) | 32 (25–43) | creatinine clearance < 60 mls/min/1.73 m2 | 104 | 41 |
Current (n = 54; 5.6%) Former (n = 39; 4.1%) Never (n = 862; 90.3%) |
Not reported | None | Statistically significant risk factors for kidney disease: High socioeconomic status | |
| Korbut (2019)[81] | 360 | 260 | 100 | Not reported | Not reported | eGFR < 45 mL/min/1.73 m2 | 149 | 35 |
Smoked (n = 34; 9.4%) Never Smoked (n = 326; 90.6%) |
Not reported | Smoking; Female sex; Male sex | Not reported | |
| Su (2015) [40] | 10,463 | 5,245 | 5,218 | Not reported | Not reported | eGFR < 60 mL/min | 2302 | 3026 |
Smoked (n = 2090; 20.6%) Never Smoked (n = 8035; 79.4%) |
Not reported | Male sex | Low income | |
| Tohidi (2012) [44] | 3,313 | 1,859 | 1,454 |
Non-CKD: 39.28 ± 12.56 CKD: 53.87 ± 11.64 |
Non-CKD: 35.52 ± 10.67 CKD: 45.63 ± 12.17 |
eGFR < 45 mL/min/1.73m2 | 517 (95% CI: 25.77–29.85) | 206 (95% CI: 12.38–15.96) |
Current (n = 322; 18.2%) Former (n = 135; 7.6%) Never (n = 1312; 74.2%) |
Not reported |
Smoking; Female sex |
None | |