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. 2024 Oct 28;14(11):1371. doi: 10.3390/biom14111371

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© 2024 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Comparisons of normal cardiac cell conditions vs. heart failure. To ensure steady state conditions, 20 s simulations at 1 Hz were performed. (A) APD prolongation with longer plateau phase due to influx of Ca²⁺. Early afterdepolarizations (EADs) were also observed through the oscillations of the membrane potential. (B) Ca²⁺ concentration displays an incomplete extrusion from the myoplasm. (C) RyR2 open probability is decreased during heart failure, and small openings were observed during EAD occurrence. (D) SR Ca²⁺ also displays incomplete recovery, mainly due to decreased SERCA activity and increased NCX expression.