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. 2024 Oct 29;21(11):1432. doi: 10.3390/ijerph21111432

Table 2.

Summary of different sampling methods for detection of pathogen from wastewater.

Sampling Volume/Duration of Exposure Pathogen Detected Concentration/Positive Ratio Ref. Remarks
Grab - SARS-CoV-2 N1 gene-5.5 log 10 copies/L
N2 gene-6.4 log 10 copies/L		 [58] The grab samples, collected between 8 a.m. and 10 a.m., showed less variability than composite sample.
Composite Varied based on the wastewater flow rate. SARS-CoV-2 N1 gene-5.3 log 10 copies/L
N2 gene-6.3 log 10 copies/L
Passive sample using cotton buds, electronegative membranes, and medical gauze
Composite sampling		 24 h
24 h		 SARS-CoV-2 25%
41%
31%
50%		 [50] Passive samples made of affordable materials can be used as an economic alternative to expensive auto samplers. The author further used 3D-printed housing units to maintain the mass transfer efficiency.
Composite sampling 1 h
  • (i)

    crAssphage

  • (ii)

    Pepper mild mottle virus (PMMOV)

  • (iii)

    AdV

 log 10 Gene copies/mL
  • (i)

    5.95

  • (ii)

    5.08

  • (iii)

    3.93

 [57] The author advocates that 24 h composite samples are likely to be superior to 1 h composite samples.
Composite sampling 24 h
  • (i)

    crAssphage

  • (ii)

    PMMOV

  • (iii)

    AdV

 log 10 Gene copies/mL
  • (i)

    5.92

  • (ii)

    5.33

  • (iii)

    3.93
Passive sampling using
  • i

    polyethylene-based plastic sampler.

  • ii

    Cotton-cloth sampler

  • iii

    Unraveled polypropylene plastic rope sampler.

 One week SARS-CoV-2 Mean gene copies/L
  • (i)

    8.493

  • (ii)

    11.909

  • (iii)

    10.358

 [49] The study depicts a positive correlation with composite samples, tested municipal WWTP, and passive samples collected at a city scale.
Passive sampling using tampons 24 h SARS-CoV-2 Median gene copies/day
N2 = 1.29 × 109
N1 = 1.04 × 109 		[54] The author quantified viral RNA by two methods, N1 and N2, and recommends passive sampling approach due to its ease of operation.
Passive sampling using
  • (i)

    Cheese cloth

  • (ii)

    Electronegative membrane

  • (iii)

    Glass wool

  • (iv)

    Gauze cloth

  • (v)

    Tampon

 24 h SARS-CoV-2 E gene copies/24 h
  • (i)

    4.1 × 107

  • (ii)

    7.3 × 106

  • (iii)

    1.4 × 107

  • (iv)

    1.8 × 107

  • (v)

    2.1 × 107

 [56] The passive sample approach and the medium used was more suitable for other pathogen studies in the work (AdV and Influenza virus).
Composite sample:
24 h composite sample 		24 h E gene copies/24 h
5.4 × 107