Table 4.
Overview of phytochemicals and their mechanisms in uric acid reduction [126].
| Class | Compound | Source Plant | Mechanism of Action | Effects on Uric Acid |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Flavonoids | Quercetin | Allium cepa (onions), Malus domestica (apples) | Inhibits xanthine oxidase (XOD) and reduces inflammatory markers (IL-1β, NLRP3). | Lowers uric acid levels, IC50 of 2.74 µmol/L for XOD inhibition, a potential treatment for HUA. |
| Kaempferol | Brassica oleracea (kale), Ginkgo biloba | It inhibits XOD and regulates uric acid transporters (URAT1). | Reduces serum uric acid levels and mitigates hyperuricemia symptoms. | |
| Luteolin | Citrus spp. (citrus fruits), Apium graveolens (celery) | Competitive XOD inhibition with a high binding affinity (2.38 × 10−6 mol/L). | Effective in lowering uric acid levels in clinical trials and animal studies. | |
| Isorhamnetin | Hippophae rhamnoides (sea buckthorn) | Inhibits hepatic XOD activity and reduces serum uric acid levels. | Significant uric acid reduction in animal models, potential therapeutic agent. | |
| Phenolic Acids | Chlorogenic Acid | Coffea arabica (coffee), Eugenia uniflora (surinam cherry) | Inhibits XOD activity, reduces uric acid production, and modulates inflammatory pathways. | Decreases serum uric acid levels and inhibits XOD activity. |
| Caffeic Acid | Salvia officinalis (sage), Coffea arabica (coffee) | Down-regulates URAT1 and GLUT9, up-regulates OAT1, competitive XOD inhibition. | Reduces uric acid levels and manages hyperuricemia through modulation | |
| Saponins | Ginsenosides | Panax ginseng | Anti-inflammatory properties that may indirectly support uric acid reduction. | Indirectly influences uric acid levels through overall health improvement. |
| Alkaloids | Vindoline | Vinca rosea (periwinkle) | Broader therapeutic actions that impact metabolic pathways. |