Table 2.

Risk factors for CVD and MASLD in type 1 diabetes and diagnostic tools.

Traditional Risk Factors	Emerging Risk Factors
Obesity	Chronic inflammation
Hyperglycemia (i.e., poor glycemic control)	Oxidative stress
Dyslipidemia	Gut microbiota
Hypertension	Environmental factors
Smoking	Cardiac autoimmunity$
Lifestyle factors (unhealthy diet, limited physical activity)	Microvascular complications of diabetes
Insulin resistance	$Unique to CVD.
Visceral adiposity (i.e., increased waist circumference)
Screening/Diagnosis of MASLD
Physical examination (i.e., hepatomegaly*)
Increased liver enzymes (ALT, AST, GGT)^,*
Ultrasound (B-mode)^
Vibration controlled transient elastogram (i.e., Fibroscan®)
Magnetic resonance elastogram (i.e., spectroscopy, PDFF) #
Liver biopsy##

* Could indicate hepatic glycogenopathy.

^ Low specificity in early stages/low degree of hepatosteatosis.

^# Non-invasive reference standard tool.

^## Gold Standard. Allows histological grading.

^$ refers that “cardiac immunity” is a unique risk factor for CVD and it does not apply to MASLD.