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. 2024 Nov 20;206(3-4):225–239. doi: 10.1007/s00442-024-05629-5

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — Schematic of the experimental design. Winter moth livestock from four British populations were reared to pupation on foliage from nine different host-plant species. Caterpillars were reared in cultures of 20 individuals, assigned to each culture randomly across broods. Performance in each host-by-population treatment was quantified on three metrics: survival, pupal mass attained, and development time (time from egg hatch to pupation)