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. 2024 Nov 28;43:312. doi: 10.1186/s13046-024-03218-1

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 1 — Breast Cancer Tumor Microenvironment. As a solid tumor, the BC TME is highly complex and contains the ECM and various immune cells in addition to BC cells and BCSCs. These cells interact with each other, express, and release several immunomodulators to stimulate BC therapy resistance and escape from the anti-tumor immune response, which in turn promotes BC cell growth, invasion, and metastasis. c-DC1, type 1 conventional DCs; BC, breast cancer; BCSCs, breast cancer stem cells; MDSCs, myeloid-derived suppressor cells; T-regs, T regulatory cells; B-regs, B regulatory cells, CAFs, cancer associated fibroblast; EPCs, endothelial; MSCs, mesenchymal stem cells; TME, tumor microenvironment; ECM, extracellular matrix; CXCR3, C-X-C chemokine receptor 3; CXCR4, C-X-C chemokine receptor 4; XCR1, X-C motif chemokine receptor 1