Table 2.

Overview of included studies

Study (country) Study design	Participants (gender) mean age	Study group / Controls	Modality used	Control modality	Duration	Evaluation	Ref.
Jasinevicius, 2004 (USA) RCT-BS	28 dentistry students after finishing the first year (23 M:5 F) N/A	15 / 13	virtual reality simulation units: Classic DentSim	non-computer assisted units: KaVo Simulator	Three two-week sessions of 2.5–3 h per day	Comparison of tooth preparations from randomly selected envelopes − 3 from each student combined from all three sessions divided into Class I, Class II, and full gold crown.	[39]
von Sternberg, 2007 (Germany) RCT-BS	41 students with no apicectomy experience (N/A) N/A	20 / 21	VOXEL-MAN on a cadaveric porcine jaw	no prior apicectomy training	3 sessions of VR at basic, advanced and expert training	By grading of evaluated parameters (1 = best − 6 = worst), preservation of vital structures, defect volume, deviation from the intended extent of resection (2 mm) and the time required to complete the procedure	[40]
Kim-Berman, 2019 (USA) RCT-WS	109 first-year dental students, only 61 eligible (N/A) N/A	61 / self	Virtual Dental Library using Arthea software and Android device	Real tooth identification tests	Two occasions	VR real tooth identification tests (1) 25 questions; (2) 50 questions Final 40 MCQ test	[41]
Zorzal, 2020 (Brazil) OS	16 dentists (12 M:4 F) 23–64 years	16 / -	IMMPLANT a virtual reality educational tool	none	20–30 min	SUS questionnaire workload analysis using NASA-TL	[42]
Reymus, 2020 (Germany) RCT-WS	42 third-year dental students (N/A) N/A	42 / self	VR software VRED 2018 and head-mounted display	1. Radiograph 2. CBCT	2 h	A questionnaire of 31 questions divided into 3 parts: based on a radiograph, CBCT, VR	[43]
Mahrous, 2021 (USA) RCT-WS	70 first-year dental students after dental anatomy course (30 M:40 F) 23.3 ± 1.9 y	70 / self	AR/VR HMD and an iPhone	1. natural human tooth 2. 3D virtual model 3. physical 3D printed model	During the experiment	A questionnaire of 17 questions. Educational value was the degree to which the modality contributed to the student’s understanding of dental anatomy	[44]
Kim-Berman, 2023 (USA) RCT-WS	90 first-year dental students (40 M:50 F) 22.9 ± 2.74	90 / self	Immersive View VR software with Oculus Rift	3D imaging − 6 min 32 s CBCT − 6 min 26 s	VR software − 10 min 50 s  + 30-min learning session using VR/CBCT	Three 10-item MCQ tests for each of the three time points, preintervention (T1), immediate postintervention (T2), and 2 weeks postintervention (T3)	[45]
Alsufyani, 2023 (Saudi Arabia) RCT-BS	69 first-year dental students (42 M:27 F) < 20–35; >20–34	34/35	Oculus Quest 2 VR software by Black Dune Studio	conventional educational lecture for 30 min	15–20 min	Quiz of 20 MCQ questions	[46]
Samuel, 2024 (USA) RCT-BS	52 s-year students 94 3rd + 4th year students G1 25.6 years; G2 26-27.5 years	52/94	Oculus Rift S  + VARIANT-VR haptic enabled iPadOS with Vuforia	Traditional training methods (lectures, anatomical landmarks)	30 min per student	Post-training surveys immediately after the session and after the first clinical experiences	[47]

RCT-BS: randomized controlled trial between subjects; RCT-WS: randomized controlled trial within subjects; OS: observational study