Abstract
The widespread use of video games among adolescents has raised concerns about their impact on psychological and social development. This study aimed to assess the effects of different types of parental mediation on adolescents' tendency to use video games to avoid negative emotions and determine the relationship between adolescents' interpersonal skills and their reliance on online video games for escapism. Participants were 452 adolescents from 15 middle and high schools. Data on sociodemographic information, gaming habits, parental control of online gaming, interpersonal skills, and reasons for playing online games were also collected. Hierarchical multiple regression was used to analyze the data, with online video game escapism as the dependent variable. Results supported the study's hypothesis that both parental mediation and adolescent interpersonal skills significantly predict the use of online video games for escapism. Higher levels of parental monitoring were associated with a lower tendency of adolescents to use video games to escape negative emotions, while parental mediation supporting autonomy showed a similar but weaker protective effect. At the same time, parental monitoring was also found to be associated with lower interpersonal skills, notably higher impulsivity, narcissism, and stress in social situations. In addition, adolescents with higher levels of impulsivity were more likely to use video games for escapism. These findings highlight the importance of balanced parental involvement and the development of adolescents' social skills to mitigate the risks of problematic online gaming. Interventions should promote effective parental mediation strategies and enhance adolescents' interpersonal skills to reduce their tendency to use video games as a coping mechanism for real‐life challenges. Effective parental mediation and improved interpersonal skills are critical for promoting healthier gaming habits and reducing adolescent escapism.
Keywords: adolescence, escapism, interpersonal skills, online video games, parental mediation
INTRODUCTION
Video games are a part of everyday life and have changed how people interact, peer group membership, social support, and involvement in the community (Sussman et al., 2018). Video games have become a widespread aspect of contemporary leisure activities for children and adolescents and have considerable implications for their psychological and social development (Alanko, 2023; Görgülü & Özer, 2023; Kovess‐Masfety et al., 2016). Studies indicate that a considerable portion of leisure time among adolescents is spent playing video games, which has raised concerns about the possible impact on their mental and physical health (Alanko, 2023; Skripkauskaite & Fazel, 2022). According to data from the School Children Mental Health Europe project, approximately 20% of children engaged in playing video games for over 5 h per week. This trend has been linked to several demographic factors, including age and sex (Kovess‐Masfety et al., 2016). According to data reported by Alanko (2023), children 8–17 years of age spend an average of 1.5–2 h daily playing video games.
Video games have made remarkable progress over the past few decades, evolving from straightforward entertainment devices to highly engaging and immersive experiences that captivate players for extended periods because of the growing popularity of online video games (Goh et al., 2023). Unlike conventional video games, online games incorporate gameplay within an Internet‐based social setting, resulting in a unique environment. The increasing sophistication of video games and the pervasive availability of gaming platforms have contributed to their growing popularity among adolescents (Cabeza‐Ramírez et al., 2021). During adolescence, several developmental changes and social pressures make teenagers especially vulnerable to the lure of video games (Haddock et al., 2022): online video games serve as a valuable resource for adolescents in navigating the various tasks and challenges common during their life stage. These platforms offer a unique opportunity for virtual experimentation with oneself and relationships with others, providing a safe and accessible space for adolescents to engage in activities that may be difficult or uncomfortable in real life (Haddock et al., 2022; Jones et al., 2014).
The psychological function of online video gaming among adolescents is complex and multifaceted. Video games have been demonstrated to serve as a means of stress relief, social interaction, and cognitive development (Alanko, 2023; Schneider et al., 2017). Recent research has highlighted the potential benefits of standard engagement in online video game use, including enhanced problem‐solving skills, increased creativity, and improved cognitive functioning (Blumberg et al., 2013; Schneider et al., 2017). Moreover, online gaming can facilitate the development of prosocial behaviors and cooperative skills when played in a social context, thus contributing to the positive social development of adolescents (Granic et al., 2014). Online video games offer adolescents a platform to explore different identities and roles crucial for psychosocial development. By participating in various in‐game scenarios, adolescents can experiment with different aspects of their personality in a secure environment, leading to enhanced self‐understanding and emotional regulation (Kowert et al., 2014). Furthermore, incorporating multiplayer gaming into social interactions can facilitate the development of social connections. This aim is achieved by providing a shared platform for interaction, collaboration, and competition that can enhance the quality of peer relationships and social skills (de Mul, 2015; Kowert & Oldmeadow, 2013).
Nevertheless, adolescents frequently resort to online video games to escape real‐life difficulties and immerse themselves in a fictional world (Marques et al., 2023). This phenomenon is characterized by escape motivation, which involves turning to gaming to alleviate negative emotions triggered by problems in adolescents' lives (Demetrovics et al., 2011). Escape motivation is a nonfunctional coping mechanism for dealing with real‐life issues (Demetrovics et al., 2011; Görgülü & Özer, 2023; Marques et al., 2023) and has been strongly linked to problematic gaming disorder in several studies (Ballabio et al., 2017; Görgülü & Özer, 2023; Marques et al., 2023). Accordingly, the concept of “escapism” can give rise to excessive gaming, which may result in negative consequences, including addiction, a phenomenon similar to other forms of behavioral addiction (Görgülü & Özer, 2023; Schneider et al., 2017). Studies have shown that adolescents who engage in prolonged gaming sessions may experience decreased academic performance, disrupted sleep patterns, and an increased risk of mental health issues such as anxiety and depression (Ferguson et al., 2011; King et al., 2013; Schneider et al., 2017). The context often determines the difference between healthy and problematic gaming and the reasons for gaming, as well as the ability of adolescents to balance gaming with other life activities (Meriläinen et al., 2023; Peeters et al., 2019).
The relationship between online gaming and specific personality traits in adolescents has also been demonstrated. It has been observed that individuals who exhibit higher levels of impulsivity, narcissism, and emotional instability are more inclined to engage in problematic gaming behaviors, which can adversely affect their academic and social performance (Marrero et al., 2021; Zhu et al., 2023). Furthermore, Kowert and Oldmeadow (2013) emphasized that more involved video game players reported lower social skills and were less able to engage others socially. The interaction between personality traits and video game use can be influenced by several factors, including the type of game played, the social context of gaming, and individual differences in coping strategies and resilience. For instance, adolescents with high levels of extraversion may benefit more from social games that facilitate interaction and teamwork, whereas those with introverted tendencies may prefer single‐player games (Kowert et al., 2014).
The family context is crucial in shaping adolescents' online video game use. In this regard, parental monitoring refers to the degree to which parents are aware of and involved in their children's activities, friendships, and general behavior, especially during their free time. Such monitoring requires active efforts of parents to monitor and guide their children's choices, including online behavior, and can range from setting clear limits to monitoring daily activities. Extensive research has shown that parental monitoring plays a protective role during adolescence, which is characterized by increased autonomy, risk‐taking, and susceptibility to peer influence (Dishion & McMahon, 1998). Effective monitoring has been shown to mitigate a range of risk behaviors, including substance use, delinquency, and problematic online gaming (Bonnaire & Phan, 2017; Liu et al., 2023). This protective function is particularly important for adolescents' online activities, such as gaming, which provide a sense of independence but, if unmonitored, can lead to problematic behaviors, such as using online gaming to escape painful feelings and emotions (Schneider et al., 2017).
A key component of parental involvement in adolescent media use is parental mediation, a strategy parents use to safeguard their children from potential harm caused by exposure to media, including online games. Parental mediation can be characterized as parents' management of interactions between teenagers and the media and is typically categorized into two types (Valkenburg et al., 2013): autonomy‐supportive and controlling. Autonomy‐supportive mediation entails parents using media interventions while agreeing with their children and explaining the reasoning behind their decisions. By contrast, controlling mediation relies on the parent's authority and imposes pressure on children to avoid media‐related risks. Although autonomy‐supportive mediation is believed to safeguard children from potential media‐related dangers, controlling mediation is thought to have adverse effects, including increased undesirable behaviors (Görgülü & Özer, 2023; Valkenburg et al., 2013). Several studies have found that parental control elicits negative responses, particularly in the form of heightened psychological reactions (Van Petegem et al., 2015), antisocial behaviors (Meeus et al., 2018), and excessive gaming (Van Petegem et al., 2019).
Furthermore, restricting access to specific media can counterintuitively make it more appealing to adolescents. This phenomenon is called the “forbidden fruit” effect (Cote et al., 2020). In addition, family‐related stressors, such as single‐parent households or family conflicts, can exacerbate adolescents' problematic gaming as they might use gaming as a coping mechanism to escape from real‐life issues. Adolescents in such environments may turn to video games for a sense of control and achievement that they lack offline (Schneider et al., 2017).
In light of this theoretical review of the topic, it is possible to point out that much of the current literature has focused on the relationship between escapism and gaming disorder, often directly linking escapist gaming behaviors to Internet Gaming Disorder or similar forms of addiction within a psychopathological framework (Giardina et al., 2024; Li et al., 2011). However, there is limited research on the underlying factors that lead adolescents to seek refuge in online environments, regardless of whether they meet the criteria for Internet addiction. Therefore, a broader exploration of this phenomenon is essential to address this issue comprehensively.
Furthermore, while much of the existing research has focused on personality traits such as impulsivity and emotional instability as predictors of problem gambling (Kowert et al., 2014; Marrero et al., 2021), relatively few studies have examined how interpersonal and social skills contribute to adolescents' psychological adjustment (Kowert & Oldmeadow, 2013). Indeed, it is crucial to recognize that interpersonal skills, such as social affirmation and stress management in social situations, play a significant role in influencing the tendency to use video games as a form of emotional escape. Consequently, a more comprehensive understanding of how healthy interpersonal relationships can protect against escapism would provide valuable insights into adolescent behavior and well‐being.
Despite the extensive research on parental mediation and individual characteristics in the context of adolescent gaming (Bonnaire & Phan, 2017; Görgülü & Özer, 2023; Koronczai et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2023), there is still a significant gap in understanding how these factors interact to influence online video game use as a form of escapism. Most studies have focused on parental strategies or adolescent personality traits in isolation, with limited attention to their combined effects on gaming behavior. Thus, it is essential to explore how the interplay between parental involvement and interpersonal skills affects adolescents' gaming habits, particularly escapism, which is increasingly recognized as a maladaptive coping mechanism (Marques et al., 2023).
Furthermore, it is important to examine how different styles of parental mediation, such as autonomy support or control, interact with adolescents' interpersonal skills in shaping their gaming behavior. A more detailed understanding of this interaction may reveal the mechanisms that mitigate or exacerbate escapist tendencies. Ultimately, by deepening the exploration of these factors, this study will gain new insights into the determinants of gaming behaviors in adolescence and contribute significantly to the broader understanding of adolescent video game use and psychological well‐being.
Study aims
This study examined the relationship between parental control, interpersonal skills, and adolescents' use of online video games as a means of escape. Specifically, this study aimed to assess the impact of various types of parental control on adolescents' online activities and their inclination to use video games to avoid negative emotions such as anger and frustration. Furthermore, this study seeks to establish a correlation between adolescents' interpersonal skills and their reliance on online video games for escapism and to identify specific behaviors and traits of adolescents who use online video games as a coping mechanism to gain a deeper understanding of the underlying motivations and potential risks associated with this conduct.
Based on these aims, our hypotheses are as follows.
Hypothesis 1
(Main hypothesis): Parental mediation in online gaming and adolescents' interpersonal skills significantly predict using online video games to escape negative emotions.
Hypothesis 2
Higher levels of parental autonomy‐supportive mediation over adolescents' online activities are associated with a lower tendency to use online video games to escape negative emotions.
Hypothesis 3
Lower levels of parental monitoring of adolescents' online activities are associated with a higher tendency for adolescents to use online video games to escape negative emotions.
Hypothesis 4
Adolescents with lower interpersonal skills are more likely to use online video games for escapism than those with higher interpersonal skills.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Participants and procedure
The present study involved students from 15 middle and high schools in Eastern Sicily (Italy), as part of a larger project on the use of online video games among adolescents conducted by the University of Catania, in collaboration with Meter Association, which has been working for years on the protection of minors using the Internet. In total, 571 students completed the questionnaire. After excluding 119 participants who reported not playing online video games, the final sample comprised 452 adolescents.
The study was approved by all school principals who had previously informed the students' parents to consent to participate in the study. All the participants provided informed consent. The recruitment process was conducted in collaboration with the principals and teachers of the middle and high schools involved in the study. Rather than distributing the questionnaire to all students, specific classes were selected based on student availability during the data collection period. To ensure a balanced sample, these classes included students from a wide range of ages, from early to late adolescence (11–18 years old).
The students completed the online questionnaire during class time using their electronic devices under the supervision of their teachers and the researchers. Teachers actively facilitated the process, sharing the link to the online survey with the selected classes and guiding students through the process during regular school hours. All students in the selected classes were invited to participate. Participants were assured that their responses would remain confidential. No sensitive or identifying information was collected to ensure the anonymity of all participants.
This study followed the ethical standards of the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Department of Educational Sciences of the University of Catania (Ierb‐Edunict‐2023.05.23/05).
Measures
Data were collected using an Internet‐based questionnaire, which included 135 multiple‐choice questions and took approximately 20 min to complete. The questionnaire collected sociodemographic information such as age, sex, household size, parents' level of education, occupation, and marital status. Additionally, it delved into participants' habits related to online gaming, parental supervision of online gaming, interpersonal skills, and reasons for playing online games. The survey also collected information on other variables pertaining to online gaming, but these were not relevant to the specific focus of this study.
Gaming use was explored using six questions about the type of devices used to play online games, the moment of the day the participants play online, the number of hours spent playing video games, and the kind of video game played.
Parental involvement in online gaming was assessed by asking participants to answer four questions using a five‐point Likert‐type scale (from 1 = never to 5 = always): “When you play online video games, do you stay up late and sleep less than usual?” (reverse) and “Do you hide the hours spent online from your parents?” (reverse); “Have your parents punished you by prohibiting online gaming?” (reverse) and “Do you discuss with your parents about the rules to follow when using online video games?”. These questions were grouped into two subscales: the first subscale, consisting of the first two questions, assessed parental monitoring, with higher scores indicating higher levels of parental monitoring and control over adolescents' online behavior. The second subscale, composed of the remaining two questions, measured parental mediation style, specifically whether the style was autonomy‐supportive or controlling. Higher scores on this subscale reflect a more autonomy‐supportive style, characterized by open communication and collaborative rule‐making between parents and adolescents. In contrast, lower scores indicate a more controlling parenting style in which parents impose rigid rules and restrictions without involving adolescents in decision‐making. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed that the factor structure of the questionnaire was adequate (RMSEA = .05; SRMR = .02; CFI = .97; TLI = .94). The reliability of the scale in this study was also good (Cronbach's α = .72), as were the subscales, with a Spearman–Brown coefficient of .75 for autonomy‐supportive mediation and .72 for parental monitoring.
The tendency toward escapism in online video gaming was examined through a single item. From a psychometric perspective, single‐item measures are often viewed with skepticism because internal consistency reliability cannot be assessed, making them more susceptible to random measurement error and potential bias in interpretation. However, single‐item measures offer several advantages, such as reducing survey length and research costs. They can also improve the efficiency of data collection and are easier to design than multi‐item scales. In addition, single‐item measures may be more adaptable to different populations and help minimize the risk of common method variance (Gardner et al., 1998). The literature supports the use of single‐item measures for specific constructs, such as in the case of escapism. In the present study, we used a single‐item measure to assess participants' level of agreement with the statement, “I use video games to escape from negative situations and emotions,” using a Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always).
Interpersonal skills were assessed using the Interpersonal Adaptation Questionnaire (IAQ) (Di Nuovo & Magnano, 2013). This self‐report inventory includes 50 items, each with a 3‐point frequency scale from 0 to 2 (0 = never, 1 = sometimes, 2 = often). The IAQ consists of five subscales: Non‐affirmation, Impulsivity, Narcissism, Social Preoccupation, and Stress in Social Situations. Specifically, the Non‐Affirmation subscale includes items such as “I'm able to defend my rights‐reverse item” and “I honestly express my feelings to everyone‐reverse item,” while the Impulsivity subscale includes items such as “People think that it's too difficult to agree with me” and “It sometimes happens that I insulted someone.” The Narcissism subscale includes items such as “I like to be in others' attention” and “I like my physical appearance,” while the Social Preoccupation subscale includes items such as “When I am with other people, I'm worried I'm behaving in a ridiculous way,” and “I'm afraid that other people could refuse what I do.” Finally, the Stress in Social Situations subscale includes items such as “When I talk to others for the first time, I feel myself worried” and “Speaking in public is a problem to me.” Higher scores correspond to a greater lack of interpersonal skills. The IAQ was previously validated on 264 middle school students and 910 high school and university students, demonstrating excellent reliability and validity indices (Di Nuovo, 1998; Di Nuovo & Magnano, 2013). All subscales of the IAQ showed satisfactory reliability in the study sample (Affirmation: α = .79; Impulsivity: α = .82; Narcissism: α = .70; Social Preoccupation: α = .90; Stress in Social Situations: α = .85).
Statistical analysis
The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 29.0 (IBM Corporation, Armonk, NY, United States) was used for statistical analyses. The sample size needed for the study was determined using G*Power 3.1, with a target power of 0.90, 9 predictors (the maximum number allowed in the multiple linear regression), and α set at 0.05. The goal was to identify a minimum effect size of f2 = 0.15, which represents a medium effect, according to Cohen (1988). A total of 14 subjects were required for the study sample.
All data were visually and statistically checked for normality (skewness and kurtosis between −2 and +2) (George & Mallery, 2010). A CFA was performed to test the measurement model for the parental mediation scale. The goodness of fit was evaluated using the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA < 0.05), the Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR < 0.08), and the Comparative Fit Index and the Tucker‐Lewis Index (CFI and TLI > 0.90). Cronbach's α was used to assess the internal consistency of the items in each scale, with a cut‐off of α > .70, which is considered acceptable for reliability (DeVellis & Thorpe, 2022). The Spearman–Brown coefficient, recommended for two‐item measures (Eisinga et al., 2012), was used to measure the reliability of the parental mediation scale, with the same cut‐off value of Cronbach's α.
Quantitative data were expressed as frequencies and percentages for categorical and ordinal variables and mean and standard deviation for continuous variables. Pearson's correlation coefficients were calculated to examine the strength and direction of the relationships between parental mediation, interpersonal skills, and the tendency to escape video gaming. Next, a linear stepwise hierarchical regression was carried out with the online video game escapism as the dependent variable. In the first block, we entered the participants' sex and age. In the second block, we entered variables related to parental mediation of online gaming. Finally, the scores related to interpersonal skills were included in the third block.
RESULTS
Descriptive analyses
The final sample consisted of 237 males and 215 females with a mean age of 13.95 years (SD = 2.43, range = 11–17 years). Table 1 shows the main sociodemographic characteristics of the study participants.
TABLE 1.
Sociodemographic characteristics of the study sample.
| Sociodemographic variables | n | % |
|---|---|---|
| Gender | ||
| Male | 237 | 52.4 |
| Female | 215 | 47.6 |
| Age | ||
| Education level | ||
| Middle school | 223 | 49.3 |
| High school | 229 | 50.7 |
| Academic career | ||
| Repeated once | 25 | 5.5 |
| Repeated more than once | 3 | 0.7 |
| Regular | 424 | 93.8 |
| Family size | ||
| 2 | 8 | 1.8 |
| 3 | 60 | 13.3 |
| 4 | 237 | 52.4 |
| 5 or more | 147 | 32.3 |
| Mother's education level | ||
| Low | 130 | 28.8 |
| Medium | 199 | 44.0 |
| High | 88 | 19.5 |
| Father's education level | ||
| Low | 175 | 38.7 |
| Medium | 162 | 35.8 |
| High | 67 | 14.8 |
| Parents' marital status | ||
| Married | 387 | 85.6 |
| Separated | 30 | 6.6 |
| Divorced | 28 | 6.2 |
| Widowed | 7 | 1.5 |
| Mother's occupation | ||
| Employee | 213 | 47.1 |
| Self‐employed | 56 | 12.4 |
| Unemployed | 23 | 5.1 |
| Housewife | 158 | 35.0 |
| Retired | 2 | 0.4 |
| Father's occupation | ||
| Employee | 286 | 63.3 |
| Self‐employed | 148 | 32.7 |
| Unemployed | 7 | 1.5 |
| Househusband | 1 | 0.2 |
| Retired | 10 | 2.2 |
As shown in Table 2, a significant percentage of the sample (33.6%) played online every day, with 19.2% playing every other day and 14.8% limiting their gaming to weekends. In addition, 48% of the participants had no specific gaming schedule, while 36.9% played primarily after completing other activities. Smartphones (35.4%) and video game consoles (45.6%) were the most commonly used online gaming devices. In addition, the preferred video game genres included action/adventure/fighting (31.9%) and sports/racing (21.0%). Most adolescents in our sample (81.0%) played less than 5 h daily, indicating moderate engagement with online gaming.
TABLE 2.
Summary of gaming use variables in the study sample.
| Gaming use variables | n | % |
|---|---|---|
| How often do you play online? | ||
| Every day | 152 | 33.6 |
| Every other day | 87 | 19.2 |
| Only on weekends | 67 | 14.8 |
| A couple of times a month | 73 | 16.2 |
| A few times a year | 44 | 9.7 |
| No answer | 29 | 6.4 |
| When do you play online games? | ||
| Only on weekends | 40 | 8.8 |
| At the end of the day after completing other activities | 167 | 36.9 |
| During meals (lunch, dinner) | 1 | 0.2 |
| After meals (lunch/dinner) | 27 | 6.0 |
| No specific time | 217 | 48.0 |
| Which consoles do you use to play online? | ||
| Smartphone | 160 | 35.4 |
| PC | 44 | 9.7 |
| Tablet | 20 | 4.4 |
| Video game console | 206 | 45.6 |
| Other/None | 22 | 4.9 |
| What genre of online games do you prefer? | ||
| Action/Adventure/Battle | 144 | 31.9 |
| Simulation/Strategy/Management | 57 | 12.6 |
| Sports/Racing | 95 | 21.0 |
| Shooter/Fighting | 32 | 7.1 |
| Role‐playing/MOBA/Card | 17 | 3.8 |
| None/Other | 107 | 23.7 |
| How many hours do you play online per day? | ||
| Less than 5 h a day | 366 | 81.0 |
| More than 5 h a day | 28 | 6.2 |
| No answer | 58 | 12.8 |
Table 3 reports the participants' mean scores in terms of parental attitudes toward online gaming, escapism, and interpersonal skills. In particular, adolescents in our sample reported higher mean scores for parental monitoring (M = 8.80, SD = 1.60). Furthermore, participants showed a significant tendency to use online video games to escape negative situations and emotions (M = 3.44, SD = 1.06). Scores on all subscales of the IAQ were above the cut‐offs indicated by Di Nuovo and Magnano (2013), underlining a significant lack of interpersonal skills in our sample.
TABLE 3.
Means, standard deviations, skewness and kurtosis of parental mediation, online gaming escapism, and interpersonal skills.
| Variable | M | SD | Skewness | Kurtosis |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Parental monitoring | 8.80 | 1.60 | −1.57 | 1.78 |
| Autonomy‐supportive mediation | 5.60 | 1.70 | 0.04 | −0.34 |
| Online gaming escapism | 3.44 | 1.06 | 0.2 | −0.4 |
| Non‐affirmation | 1.15 | 0.31 | −0.34 | −0.02 |
| Impulsivity | 1.23 | 0.37 | −0.47 | −0.26 |
| Narcissism | 1.18 | 0.33 | −0.42 | −0.16 |
| Social preoccupation | 1.05 | 0.41 | −0.07 | −0.45 |
| Stress in social situations | 1.21 | 0.39 | −0.42 | −0.49 |
Correlation analysis (Table 4) examined the relationships between online game escapism, parental mediation, and interpersonal skills.
TABLE 4.
Correlation analysis of online gaming escapism, parental mediation, and interpersonal skills in the study sample.
| Variable | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Online gaming escapism | – | |||||||
| 2. Parental monitoring | −.372** | – | ||||||
| 3. Autonomy‐supportive mediation | −.214** | .130** | – | |||||
| 4. Non‐affirmation | .055 | .008 | −.018 | – | ||||
| 5. Impulsivity | .208** | .269** | −.086 | .121** | – | |||
| 6. Narcissism | .108* | .189** | −.035 | .374** | .328** | – | ||
| 7. Social preoccupation | .098* | .073 | −.069 | .131** | .178** | .246** | – | |
| 8. Stress in social situations | .139** | .108** | −.073 | .487** | .074 | .008 | .489** | – |
Note: **p < .01 (two‐tailed); *p < .05 (two‐tailed).
Results indicated that online game escapism was negatively and significantly correlated with parental monitoring (r = −.372, p < .01) and autonomy‐supportive mediation (r = −.214, p < .01). Impulsivity was also found to be significantly related to escapism (r = .208, p < .01). In addition, narcissism (r = .108, p < .05) and stress in social situations (r = .139, p < .01) showed modest but significant positive correlations with escapism.
Other interpersonal skills, such as non‐affirmation (r = .055, p > .05) and social preoccupation (r = .098, p < .05), had weaker or non‐significant correlations with escapism.
Hierarchical multiple regression model results
Hierarchical multiple regression was used to assess the ability of parental attitudes toward online gaming and adolescents' interpersonal skills to predict online video game escapism after controlling for the influence of sex and age (Table 5). Preliminary analyses were conducted to ensure that the assumptions of normality, linearity, multicollinearity, and homoscedasticity were not violated. Sociodemographic variables (sex and age) were included in Model 1, which explained 3.4% of the variance in escapism (F = 7.898, p < .001). Sex and age were significant predictors, suggesting that males (β = −.161, p < .001) and younger adolescents (β = −.094, p = .044) were more likely to escape using online gaming. In Model 2, parental mediation variables were added, increasing the model's explanatory power to 17.9% (F = 24.357, p < .001). Parental monitoring was negatively associated with escapism (β = −.352, p < .001), suggesting that higher levels of parental monitoring were associated with a lower tendency to use online games for escapism. In addition, autonomy‐supportive mediation was negatively related to escapism (β = −.126, p = .007), suggesting that more open communication and shared decision‐making with parents also reduced the likelihood of escapism in the adolescents of our sample. The higher coefficient for parental monitoring indicates a more significant influence on lowering escapism than parental mediation style. Furthermore, in Model 2, there was no longer a significant effect of sex (β = −.082, p = .066), while age was negatively associated with escapism (β = −.091, p = .045), suggesting that older adolescents are less likely to use online games for escapism than younger adolescents. In Model 3, interpersonal skills variables were included, increasing the explanatory power to 21% (F = 13.032, p < .001). More specifically, sex and age remained significant negative predictors, confirming that males (β = −.101, p = .024) and younger adolescents (β = −.107, p = .018) were more likely to engage in escapism than older adolescents. Parental monitoring and autonomy‐supportive mediation also remained strong predictors, indicating that higher parental monitoring (β = −.302, p < .001) and higher autonomy‐supportive mediation (β = −.130, p = .005) have a protective role against online escapism. Among interpersonal skills, impulsivity (β = .125, p = .025) was a significant positive predictor, suggesting that adolescents with higher levels of impulsivity in social interactions were more likely to use online video games as escapism. Other interpersonal skills variables were not significant predictors in the final model (p > .05).
TABLE 5.
Hierarchical regression results for online gaming escapism.
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| β | p | β | p | β | p | |
| Sociodemographic variables | ||||||
| Sex | −.161 | <.001 | −.082 | .066 | −.101 | .024 |
| Age | −.094 | .044 | −.091 | .045 | −.107 | .018 |
| Parental mediation in online gaming | ||||||
| Parental monitoring | −.352 | <.001 | −.302 | <.001 | ||
| Autonomy‐supportive mediation | −.126 | .007 | −.130 | .005 | ||
| Interpersonal skills | ||||||
| Non‐affirmation | .054 | .321 | ||||
| Impulsivity | .120 | .010 | ||||
| Narcissism | .030 | .298 | ||||
| Social preoccupation | .051 | .321 | ||||
| Stress in social situations | .055 | .330 | ||||
| Constant R 2/Adjusted R 2 | .034/.030 | .179/.172 | .210/.194 | |||
Note: Values in bold indicate statistical significance at p < .05.
DISCUSSION
This study examined the relationship between parental mediation, interpersonal skills, and adolescents' use of online video games as a form of escapism. The results supported our main hypothesis (Hypothesis 1), demonstrating that parental involvement in online gaming and adolescents' interpersonal skills significantly predicted the use of online video games to escape negative emotions.
Consistent with our hypotheses, different types of parental mediation were found to have significant effects on adolescents' gaming behaviors. Specifically, our study found that open communication between parents and adolescents regarding online gaming rules was associated with a reduced tendency toward escapism (Hypothesis 2). This finding supports the hypothesis that autonomy‐supportive parental mediation, which emphasizes communication and shared decision‐making, encourages a healthier relationship with online gaming (Valkenburg et al., 2013). Adolescents may be less likely to use gaming as an escape strategy when their parents respect their autonomy and involve them in setting boundaries. This finding is consistent with that of Bonnaire and Phan (2017), who found that clear rules about gaming use, such as time to start and end gaming with parental supervision, were negatively associated with Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) in males.
Furthermore, our study found a significant association between higher levels of parental monitoring and lower levels of adolescent escapism (Hypothesis 3). Adolescents who reported that their parents rarely monitored their online gaming activities were more likely to use video games to escape negative emotions and real‐life challenges, adopting behaviors such as staying late to play games and hiding the amount of time spent playing games. This finding suggests that a lack of parental supervision may lead to unregulated gaming habits, in which adolescents turn to video games to cope with stress, frustration, or other negative emotional states (Bonnaire & Phan, 2017; Görgülü & Özer, 2023). The absence of parental guidance and monitoring may allow adolescents to seek refuge in the immersive world of online games, thereby increasing the risk of developing problematic gaming behaviors. Bonnaire and Phan (2017) confirmed that parental monitoring is a major inhibitor of IGD in both males and females. However, an interesting finding of this study is that increased parental monitoring was also found to be associated with lower interpersonal skills among adolescents, particularly high levels of impulsivity, narcissistic orientation, and stress in social situations. This finding suggests that while parental monitoring, whether autonomy‐supportive or controlling, may help mitigate avoidance tendencies, it may limit adolescents' opportunities to develop social skills, potentially limiting their autonomy in social interactions and decision‐making. One possible interpretation of this negative association is that the mean score on the parental mediation scale does not indicate a clear prevalence of an autonomy‐supportive dimension as perceived by the adolescents in our sample. Therefore, monitoring is likely to be perceived as more controlling, which in turn may limit the development of participants' social skills. In this regard, Van Petegem et al. (2015) underline that parental controlling behaviors, such as restrictive monitoring, can negatively impact adolescents' psychosocial development, leading to defiance, increased stress, and poor social adjustment. In particular, they showed that limited autonomy and rigid control may hinder adolescents' ability to navigate interpersonal dynamics, which may explain the negative association between high levels of parental monitoring and interpersonal skills in the current study.
In addition, regression analysis revealed that the influence of parental monitoring in reducing escapism was more pronounced than supportive mediation. In fact, the higher coefficient for parental monitoring shows its greater effectiveness in preventing escapist behaviors than supportive approaches (Bonnaire & Phan, 2017). Although autonomy‐promoting mediation, which includes open communication and shared decision‐making, was also negatively associated with escapism, its effect was weaker than that of monitoring. This finding suggests that, while it is important to promote an open and supportive climate between parents and children, an effective parental monitoring of adolescent behavior plays a key role in limiting the use of play as a means of emotional escapism, regardless of the mediation style used by parents (Valkenburg et al., 2013). However, as Van Petegem et al. (2015) noted, excessive parental monitoring may lead to a backlash in which adolescents resist the restrictions and resort to covert online gaming behaviors. This phenomenon, referred to as the “forbidden fruit” effect (Cote et al., 2020), may further explain why high parental monitoring, while effective in reducing escapism, may also correlate with low interpersonal skills when not accompanied by the promotion and support of adolescent autonomy.
The study also found a low correlation between parental monitoring and supportive mediation. The weak association between these dimensions suggests that parents may not consistently apply these approaches together, potentially limiting their combined impact on adolescent behavior (Meeus et al., 2018). Van Petegem et al. (2015) argue that balanced parenting approaches, which offer structured guidance while promoting adolescent autonomy, are more likely to produce positive outcomes, such as greater self‐regulation, fewer internalizing problems, and better social skills. The results of the current study support this perspective, as they suggest that supportive mediation alone without effective monitoring of adolescent behaviors may not be sufficient to limit online escapism. Still, when combined with autonomy‐supportive approaches, monitoring may mitigate adverse side effects on social development.
It is important to note that some of the correlation indices observed in the study were relatively low (<0.20). Although these correlations were statistically significant, their small magnitude suggests that the relationships between some variables, especially interpersonal skills and escapism, may be weak. It is possible that the relationship between these variables is more complex and may be mediated by other variables not examined in this study, such as peer influence or emotional regulation strategies. In this regard, previous research suggested that while impulsivity is a stronger predictor of problem gambling behavior, traits such as narcissism or social anxiety may only contribute in specific contexts or when combined with other risk factors (Kowert et al., 2014). In addition, the low correlations may reflect individual differences in how adolescents use video games as a coping mechanism. For example, adolescents with low levels of social anxiety or narcissism may still engage in social activities or have other means of emotional expression, thus reducing their reliance on video games for escapism. This finding is consistent with the literature suggesting that video game use and its psychological effects are highly individualized and influenced by multiple environmental and personal factors (Peeters et al., 2019).
Finally, according to Hypothesis, our results suggest that adolescents with poor interpersonal skills, particularly those with high levels of impulsivity, are more likely to use online video games for escapism, supporting previous research suggesting a link between poor social skills and problematic gaming behaviors (Kowert & Oldmeadow, 2013; Marrero et al., 2021). Adolescents who struggle with social interactions may find relief in the virtual world of video games, where they can experience a sense of control and accomplishment that may be lacking in their offline lives. Bonnaire and Phan (2017) suggest that adolescents with broken family relationships may turn to massively multiplayer online role‐playing games to benefit from social interactions and escape from dysfunctional family environments.
Implications for intervention
The results of this study have significant implications for the formulation of interventions aimed at minimizing problematic gaming and promoting healthy video game use among adolescents. Such interventions should focus on emphasizing the importance of balancing parental mediation strategies. On the one hand, parental monitoring appears to be effective in reducing escapism but may be detrimental to adolescents' social development if it is too restrictive. On the other hand, while supportive mediation promotes the growth of interpersonal skills by encouraging autonomy and open dialogue, it may not be as effective in reducing escapist gaming behaviors. Therefore, educating parents about the benefits of open discussions and collaborative game rules can mitigate the risks associated with overly controlling and neglectful parenting styles.
Educational systems can also be critical in promoting healthier video game use among adolescents. Schools offer a unique opportunity to implement structured programs that address developing interpersonal skills and the responsible use of technology. For example, social and emotional learning programs that focus on improving emotional regulation, communication, and problem‐solving skills could be adapted to address the specific challenges associated with digital media use (Durlak et al., 2011). By including discussions about the potential risks of escapism in gaming and teaching students how to cope with stress in healthier ways, educators can help reduce online gaming as a form of emotional escapism. Such programs could improve students' interpersonal skills, provide them with the tools to navigate social challenges, and reduce the likelihood of turning to video games for escapism. In addition, educators can work with parents to develop a consistent approach to managing adolescent gaming behavior. Workshops and information sessions could be organized to provide parents and teachers with strategies for promoting an autonomy‐supportive environment at home and school.
Limitations
While the present study provides valuable insights, it is not without limitations. First, the cross‐sectional design limits the ability to establish causal relationships between parental mediation, interpersonal skills, and online gaming escapism. Future longitudinal studies are needed to examine the temporal dynamics between these variables and to uncover potential causal pathways. Although this study focused primarily on the role of parents and interpersonal skills, other factors, such as peer relationships and emotional regulation strategies, may also play an important role in adolescents' use of online video games. In particular, peer dynamics may influence gaming behavior through social pressure or as a form of emotional connections, which was not explored in this study. In addition, adolescents' ability to regulate emotions may mediate the relationship between stressors and the use of video games as a coping mechanism. Future research should examine these potential mediators for a more complete understanding of the factors that contribute to video game escapism. Additionally, using self‐reported data introduces the possibility of social desirability bias and inaccuracies in reporting gaming behavior and parental mediation. Future research should include objective measures of gaming use and parental involvement to address this limitation. A further limitation is the use of a questionnaire specifically developed for this study to assess online gaming and parental mediation. Although it was designed to capture relevant aspects of these variables, previous research has not validated it. Future studies should seek to validate this instrument to ensure its reliability and applicability to different populations and contexts.
Moreover, the sample was drawn from a specific geographic region in Italy, which may limit the generalizability of the results to other cultural contexts. Cross‐cultural studies are needed to examine how differences in parenting styles and social norms influence adolescents' gambling behaviors and avoidance tendencies. Finally, some low correlation indices (<0.20) were observed in the analysis, particularly between interpersonal skills and escapism. These weak correlations suggest these factors may play a minor role in the broader context of video game escapism. Future research should examine other potential mediating variables and consider longitudinal designs to clarify these relationships further.
CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, this study underscores the relationship between parental mediation, interpersonal skills, and the use of online video games for escapism among adolescents. Our findings highlight the importance of balanced parental involvement and the development of interpersonal skills in mitigating the risks associated with problematic online gaming. Interventions that promote autonomy‐supportive parenting and enhance adolescents' social competencies hold promise for fostering healthier gaming habits and reducing the tendency to use video games to escape from real‐life challenges.
FUNDING INFORMATION
No funding was obtained for this study.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The authors have no relevant financial or non‐financial interests to disclose.
PARTICIPANT CONSENT STATEMENT
All participants and their parents provided informed assent and consent, respectively.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful to the schools and the students who participated in this study for their time.
Commodari, E. , Consiglio, A. , Cannata, M. , & La Rosa, V. L. (2024). Influence of parental mediation and social skills on adolescents' use of online video games for escapism: A cross‐sectional study. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 34, 1668–1678. 10.1111/jora.13034
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The dataset analyzed for the current study is available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
REFERENCES
- Alanko, D. (2023). The health effects of video games in children and adolescents. Pediatrics in Review, 44(1), 23–32. 10.1542/pir.2022-005666 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ballabio, M. , Griffiths, M. D. , Urbán, R. , Quartiroli, A. , Demetrovics, Z. , & Király, O. (2017). Do gaming motives mediate between psychiatric symptoms and problematic gaming? An empirical survey study. Addiction Research & Theory, 25(5), 397–408. 10.1080/16066359.2017.1305360 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- Blumberg, F. C. , Altschuler, E. A. , Almonte, D. E. , & Mileaf, M. I. (2013). The impact of recreational video game play on children's and adolescents' cognition. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2013(139), 41–50. 10.1002/cad.20030 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Bonnaire, C. , & Phan, O. (2017). Relationships between parental attitudes, family functioning and internet gaming disorder in adolescents attending school. Psychiatry Research, 255, 104–110. 10.1016/j.psychres.2017.05.030 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cabeza‐Ramírez, L. J. , Muñoz‐Fernández, G. A. , & Santos‐Roldán, L. (2021). Video game streaming in young people and teenagers: Uptake, user groups, dangers, and opportunities. Healthcare, 9(2), 192. 10.3390/healthcare9020192 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cohen, J. , (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Routledge. [Google Scholar]
- Cote, A. C. , Coles, S. M. , & Dal Cin, S. (2020). The interplay of parenting style and family rules about video games on subsequent fighting behavior. Aggressive Behavior, 47(2), 135–147. 10.1002/ab.21931 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- de Mul, J. (2015). The game of life: Narrative and ludic identity formation in computer games. In Representations of internarrative identity (pp. 159–187). 10.1057/9781137462534_10 [DOI]
- Demetrovics, Z. , Urbán, R. , Nagygyörgy, K. , Farkas, J. , Zilahy, D. , Mervó, B. , Reindl, A. , Ágoston, C. , Kertész, A. , & Harmath, E. (2011). Why do you play? The development of the motives for online gaming questionnaire (MOGQ). Behavior Research Methods, 43(3), 814–825. 10.3758/s13428-011-0091-y [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- DeVellis, R. F. , & Thorpe, C. T. (2022). Scale development: Theory and applications (Fifth ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc. [Google Scholar]
- Di Nuovo, S. (1998). Q.A.I.: Un test di adattamento interpersonale. In Di Nuovo S., Lo Verso G., Di Blasi M., & Giannone F. (Eds.), Valutare le psicoterapie: La ricerca italiana (pp. 281–289). Franco Angeli. [Google Scholar]
- Di Nuovo, S. , & Magnano, P. (2013). Competenze trasversali e scelte formative. Strumenti per valutare metacognizione, motivazione, interessi e abilità sociali per la continuità tra livelli scolastici. Edizioni Erickson. [Google Scholar]
- Dishion, T. J. , & McMahon, R. J. (1998). Parental monitoring and the prevention of child and adolescent problem behavior: A conceptual and empirical formulation. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 1(1), 61–75. 10.1023/a:1021800432380 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Durlak, J. A. , Weissberg, R. P. , Dymnicki, A. B. , Taylor, R. D. , & Schellinger, K. B. (2011). The impact of enhancing Students' social and emotional learning: A meta‐analysis of school‐based universal interventions. Child Development, 82(1), 405–432. 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01564.x [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Eisinga, R. , Grotenhuis, M. t., & Pelzer, B. (2012). The reliability of a two‐item scale: Pearson, Cronbach, or Spearman‐Brown? International Journal of Public Health, 58(4), 637–642. 10.1007/s00038-012-0416-3 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ferguson, C. J. , Coulson, M. , & Barnett, J. (2011). A meta‐analysis of pathological gaming prevalence and comorbidity with mental health, academic and social problems. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 45(12), 1573–1578. 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.09.005 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gardner, D. G. , Cummings, L. L. , Dunham, R. B. , & Pierce, J. L. (1998). Single‐item versus multiple‐item measurement scales: An empirical comparison. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 58(6), 898–915. 10.1177/0013164498058006003 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- George, D. , & Mallery, M. (2010). SPSS for windows step by step: A simple guide and reference, 17.0 update (10th ed.). Pearson. [Google Scholar]
- Giardina, A. , Schimmenti, A. , Starcevic, V. , King, D. L. , Di Blasi, M. , & Billieux, J. (2024). Problematic gaming, social withdrawal, and escapism: The compensatory‐dissociative online gaming (C‐DOG) model. Computers in Human Behavior, 155, 108187. 10.1016/j.chb.2024.108187 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- Goh, E. , Al‐Tabbaa, O. , & Khan, Z. (2023). Unravelling the complexity of the video game industry: An integrative framework and future research directions. Telematics and Informatics Reports, 12, 100100. 10.1016/j.teler.2023.100100 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- Görgülü, Z. , & Özer, A. (2023). Conditional role of parental controlling mediation on the relationship between escape, daily game time, and gaming disorder. Current Psychology, 43(4), 3821–3829. 10.1007/s12144-023-04557-6 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Granic, I. , Lobel, A. , & Engels, R. C. M. E. (2014). The benefits of playing video games. American Psychologist, 69(1), 66–78. 10.1037/a0034857 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Haddock, A. , Ward, N. , Yu, R. , & O'Dea, N. (2022). Positive effects of digital technology use by adolescents: A scoping review of the literature. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(21), 4009. 10.3390/ijerph192114009 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jones, C. M. , Scholes, L. , Johnson, D. , Katsikitis, M. , & Carras, M. C. (2014). Gaming well: Links between videogames and flourishing mental health. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 260. 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00260 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- King, D. L. , Haagsma, M. C. , Delfabbro, P. H. , Gradisar, M. , & Griffiths, M. D. (2013). Toward a consensus definition of pathological video‐gaming: A systematic review of psychometric assessment tools. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(3), 331–342. 10.1016/j.cpr.2013.01.002 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Koronczai, B. , Urban, R. , & Demetrovics, Z. (2020). Parental bonding and problematic internet or social media use among adolescents. Psychiatria Hungarica, 35(1), 73–80. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kovess‐Masfety, V. , Keyes, K. , Hamilton, A. , Hanson, G. , Bitfoi, A. , Golitz, D. , Koç, C. , Kuijpers, R. , Lesinskiene, S. , Mihova, Z. , Otten, R. , Fermanian, C. , & Pez, O. (2016). Is time spent playing video games associated with mental health, cognitive and social skills in young children? Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 51(3), 349–357. 10.1007/s00127-016-1179-6 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kowert, R. , Domahidi, E. , & Quandt, T. (2014). The relationship between online video game involvement and gaming‐related friendships among emotionally sensitive individuals. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17(7), 447–453. 10.1089/cyber.2013.0656 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kowert, R. , & Oldmeadow, J. A. (2013). Social reputation: Exploring the relationship between online video game involvement and social competence. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(4), 1872–1878. 10.1016/j.chb.2013.03.003 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- Li, D. , Liau, A. , & Khoo, A. (2011). Examining the influence of actual‐ideal self‐discrepancies, depression, and escapism, on pathological gaming among massively multiplayer online adolescent gamers. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 14(9), 535–539. 10.1089/cyber.2010.0463 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Liu, J. , Wu, L. , Sun, X. , Bai, X. , & Duan, C. (2023). Active parental mediation and adolescent problematic internet use: The mediating role of parent–child relationships and hiding online behavior. Behavioral Science, 13(8), 679. 10.3390/bs13080679 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Marques, L. M. , Uchida, P. M. , Aguiar, F. O. , Kadri, G. , Santos, R. I. M. , & Barbosa, S. P. (2023). Escaping through virtual gaming—What is the association with emotional, social, and mental health? A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 14, 685. 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1257685 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Marrero, R. J. , Fumero, A. , Voltes, D. , González, M. , & Peñate, W. (2021). Individual and interpersonal factors associated with the incidence, persistence, and remission of internet gaming disorders symptoms in an adolescents sample. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(21), 638. 10.3390/ijerph182111638 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Meeus, A. , Beyens, I. , Geusens, F. , Sodermans, A. K. , & Beullens, K. (2018). Managing positive and negative media effects among adolescents: Parental mediation matters—But not always. Journal of Family Communication, 18(4), 270–285. 10.1080/15267431.2018.1487443 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- Meriläinen, M. , Hietajärvi, L. , Aurava, R. , & Stenros, J. (2023). Games in everyday life: Profiles of adolescent digital gaming motives and well‐being outcomes. Telematics and Informatics Reports, 12, 100104. 10.1016/j.teler.2023.100104 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- Peeters, M. , Koning, I. , Lemmens, J. , & Eijnden, R. (2019). Normative, passionate, or problematic? Identification of adolescent gamer subtypes over time. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 8(3), 574–585. 10.1556/2006.8.2019.55 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Schneider, L. A. , King, D. L. , & Delfabbro, P. H. (2017). Family factors in adolescent problematic internet gaming: A systematic review. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 6(3), 321–333. 10.1556/2006.6.2017.035 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Skripkauskaite, S. , & Fazel, M. (2022). Time spent gaming, device type, addiction scores, and well‐being of adolescent English gamers in the 2021 OxWell survey: Latent profile analysis. JMIR Pediatrics and Parenting, 5(4), e41480. 10.2196/41480 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sussman, C. J. , Harper, J. M. , Stahl, J. L. , & Weigle, P. (2018). Internet and video game addictions. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 27(2), 307–326. 10.1016/j.chc.2017.11.015 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Valkenburg, P. M. , Piotrowski, J. T. , Hermanns, J. , & de Leeuw, R. (2013). Developing and validating the perceived parental media mediation scale: A self‐determination perspective. Human Communication Research, 39(4), 445–469. 10.1111/hcre.12010 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- Van Petegem, S. , de Ferrerre, E. , Soenens, B. , van Rooij, A. J. , & Van Looy, J. (2019). Parents' degree and style of restrictive mediation of young children's digital gaming: Associations with parental attitudes and perceived child adjustment. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(5), 1379–1391. 10.1007/s10826-019-01368-x [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- Van Petegem, S. , Soenens, B. , Vansteenkiste, M. , & Beyers, W. (2015). Rebels with a cause? Adolescent defiance from the perspective of reactance theory and self‐determination theory. Child Development, 86(3), 903–918. 10.1111/cdev.12355 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Zhu, L. , Zhu, Y. , Li, S. , Jiang, Y. , Mei, X. , Wang, Y. , Yang, D. , Zhao, J. , Mu, L. , & Wang, W. (2023). Association of internet gaming disorder with impulsivity: Role of risk preferences. BMC Psychiatry, 23(1), 754. 10.1186/s12888-023-05265-y [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Data Availability Statement
The dataset analyzed for the current study is available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.