. 2024 Nov 22;25(11):423. doi: 10.31083/j.rcm2511423

Table 1.

The mechanism of glucose metabolism reprogramming of VECs in atherosclerosis.

Modeling method	Mechanism of action	Pharmacological action	References
Adeno-associated virus 1 $\times$ 10¹² µg/mL	Pro-inflammatory signal pathway	Ox-LDL, LOX-1 $\downarrow$	[54]
Adeno-associated virus 1 $\times$ 10¹² µg/mL		ICAM-1, VCAM-1 $\uparrow$
		CCL5, CXCL1 $\uparrow$
		ERK1/2, p38 $\uparrow$
		Endothelial inflammatory reaction $\uparrow$
TNF- $\alpha$ 500 nM	NF- $\kappa{}$ B, PKC	SELE, VCAM-1, IL-6 $\downarrow$	[55]
		Intermediate factor $\uparrow$
		Endothelial inflammation $\downarrow$
DSS, LPS	S1PR2/RhoA/ROCK1	Endoplasmic reticulum stress $\downarrow$	[56]
SiGLUT1	Lactic acid signaling pathway	MCT1, MCT5, MCT8 $\downarrow$	[57]
		Lactic acid metabolism $\downarrow$
BEG 10 µmol/L	PI3K/Akt/eNOS/NO antioxidant signaling pathway	ROS, LDH, MDA $\downarrow$	[58]
	PI3K/Akt/eNOS/NO antioxidant signaling pathway	SOD $\uparrow$
		Akt $\downarrow$
		eNOS phosphorylation $\downarrow$
		NO $\downarrow$
		Endothelial cell viability $\downarrow$
EGCG 100 µM	Glycolysis pathway	Angiopoietin-2 secretion $\downarrow$	[59]
		Endothelial cell proliferation, migration, invasion $\downarrow$
		Barrier function $\uparrow$
Lactic acid 10 mM	HMGB1	YAP, SIRT1, HMGB1 $\downarrow$	[60]
		HMGB1 exosomes release $\downarrow$
Streptomycin 100 µg/mL	Glucose metabolism signal pathway	MCT1, MCT4 $\downarrow$	[61]
	Glucose metabolism signal pathway	VCAM-1, VE-cadherin $\downarrow$
		VEGFa, VEGFR2 $\downarrow$
		TGF- $\beta$ , IL-1 $\beta$ $\downarrow$
		Endothelial cell migration andproliferation $\downarrow$
		In vitro angiogenesis $\downarrow$
AGEs	Profilin-1 RhoA/ROCK1	RhoA, ROCK1 $\downarrow$	[62]
		ROS $\downarrow$
		Endothelial dysfunction $\uparrow$
		Oxidative stress $\uparrow$
FGF2 10 IU/mL	mTOR	P8 protein, ROS $\uparrow$	[63]
		Mitochondrial membrane potential $\downarrow$
		Apoptosis $\downarrow$
		Angiogenesi $\downarrow$
Rapamycin	PI3K/Akt/mTOR	MiRNA-155, LC3-II $\uparrow$	[64]
		P-mTOR/mTOR $\downarrow$
		Autophagy $\uparrow$
NAR 100 mg/kg	Inflammation signaling pathway	TC, TG, LDL-C, TNF- $\alpha$ $\uparrow$	[65]
		ALT, MDA $\uparrow$
		HDL-C, SOD, GSH-Px $\downarrow$
		Autophagy $\uparrow$
ECGS 1%	MitoQ	NF- $\kappa{}$ B, NLRP3 $\downarrow$	[66]
		ROS $\downarrow$
		VE-cadherin decomposition $\downarrow$
		Actin cytoskeleton remodeling $\downarrow$
		Autophagy $\downarrow$
Ang-II	SESN2/AMPK/TSC2	mTOR phosphorylation $\downarrow$	[67]
		Oxidative stress $\downarrow$
		Autophagy $\uparrow$
		Endothelial progenitor cell injury $\downarrow$
LDL 50 µg/mL	PI3K/Akt/mTOR	P62 $\uparrow$	[68]
		LC3-II, IR, LDLR $\downarrow$
		mTOR, Akt, GSK3 $\beta$ $\uparrow$
		Glucose uptake $\uparrow$
		Autophagy $\downarrow$
TNF- $\alpha$ 20 ng/mL	NF- $\kappa{}$ B	VCAM-1, ICAM-1 $\uparrow$	[69]
		LC3-II $\uparrow$
		Angiogenesis in plaque $\downarrow$
		Cardiac function $\uparrow$
Ang II	PKM2	EndoMT $\downarrow$	[70]
		PKM2 $\uparrow$
		Synthetic VSMC marker $\downarrow$
		Endothelial cell transformation $\downarrow$
Palmitate 200 µM	PINK1	P-Drp-1/Drp-1 $\downarrow$	[71]
		Fis1 $\downarrow$
		Mfn2, Nix, LC3B $\downarrow$
		Oxidative stress $\downarrow$
		Mitochondrial autophagy $\uparrow$
Ox-LDL 50 µg/mL	Let-7e	lnc-MKI67IP-3 $\downarrow$	[72]
		I $\kappa{}$ B $\beta$ $\downarrow$
		NF- $\kappa{}$ B $\uparrow$
		Nuclear translocation $\uparrow$
		Inflammation $\uparrow$
		Adhesion molecule $\uparrow$
Amaryl novoNorm	Inflammation and oxidation pathway	GSH $\uparrow$	[73]
	Inflammation and oxidation pathway	HsCRP, IL-6, TNF- $\alpha$ $\downarrow$
		MDA $\downarrow$
		Intima thickness of artery $\downarrow$
Glucan 40 mM	HIF-1 $\alpha$	ROS, NOX4, HIF-1 $\alpha$ $\uparrow$	[74]
		PDK1 $\uparrow$
		Glycolytic enzyme $\uparrow$
		Inflammation $\downarrow$
		Mitochondrial respiratory ability $\downarrow$
E06-scFv 5 µg/mL	OxPL	TNF- $\alpha$ , IL-1 $\beta$ $\downarrow$	[75]
		Cholesterol $\downarrow$
		Aortic valve calcification $\downarrow$
		Inflammation $\downarrow$
Toluene thiazine 20 mg/mL	PFKFB3	VLDL, LDL, HDL $\downarrow$	[76]
		Glycolysis $\downarrow$
		GLUT3 $\downarrow$
		Inflammation $\downarrow$
Cone plate flow system	PRKAA1/AMPK $\alpha$ 1	PRKA, AMPK $\uparrow$	[77]
		Glycolysis $\downarrow$
		Slc2a1, PRKAA1 $\uparrow$
		Endothelial cell proliferation $\downarrow$
		Endothelial vitality $\downarrow$
EGF 0.1 ng/mL	TNF- $\alpha$ /NF- $\kappa{}$ B/HIF/VEGF	TNF-R1 $\downarrow$	[78]
		VEGF, HIF-1 $\beta$ $\downarrow$
		Angiogenesis $\uparrow$
		P65 phosphorylation $\downarrow$
Gibco 0.1 mg/mL	PFKFB3	MMP, dvWF $\downarrow$	[79]
		VEGFR-2 $\downarrow$
		Endothelial differentiation $\uparrow$
		Glycolysis $\uparrow$
		Angiogenesis $\uparrow$
Penicillin 100 U/mL	PFK15	Glucose intake $\downarrow$	[80]
Streptomycin 100 µg/mL		Endothelial cell migration $\downarrow$
		Endothelial cell proliferation $\downarrow$
		Glycolytic activity $\downarrow$

Abbreviation: VECs, vascular endothelial cells; TNF- $\alpha{}$ , tumor necrosis factor- $\alpha{}$ ; DSS, disturbed shear stress ; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; SiGLUT1, silencing glucose-facilitated diffusion transporter 1; BEG, $\beta{}$ -elemene derivative; EGCG, espigallocatechin gallate; AGEs, advanced glycation end products; FGF2, fibroblast growth factor 2; NAR, naringenin; ECGS, endothelial cell growth supplement; Ang-II, angiotensin Ⅱ; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; Ox-LDL, oxidized low-density lipoprotein; E06-scFv, E06-single chain fragment of antioxidant phospholipid antibody; EGF, epidermal growth factor; NF- $\kappa{}$ B, nuclear factor $\kappa{}$ B; PKC, protein kinase c; S1PR2/RhoA/ROCK1, sphingosine phosphate receptor 2/Rho protein A/Rho-related kinase 1; PI3K/Akt/eNOS, phosphatidylinositol 3- kinase/protein kinase B/endothelial nitric oxide synthase; HMGB1, high mobility group protein1; mTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin; MitoQ, mitochondrial Q; SESN2/AMPK/TSC2, stress response protein 2/adenosine monophosphate activated protein kinase/tuberous sclerosis protein complex 2; PKM2, Pyruvate kinase M2 type ; PINK1, homologous phosphatase tensin induced kinase 1; Let-7e, Let-7 family regulator; HIF-1 $\alpha{}$ , hypoxia inducible factor-1 $\alpha{}$ ; OxPL, oxidized phospholipids; PFKFB3, fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase 3; PRKAA1/AMPK $\alpha{}$ 1, protein kinase AMP-activated catalytic subunit alpha 1/5^′-AMP-activated protein kinase catalytic subunit alpha-1; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor; PFK15, fructose -2,6- bisphosphatase 3 inhibitor-15; ICAM-1, intercellular adhesion molecule -1; VCAM-1, vascular cell adhesion molecule 1; CCL5, chemokine ligand 5; CXCL1, chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 1; ERK1/2, extracellular regulated protein kinase1/2; p38, P38 mitogen-activated protein kinase; SELE, selectin e; IL-6, interleukin 6; MCT1, monocarboxylic acid transporter 1; MCT5, monocarboxylic acid transporter 5; MCT8, monocarboxylic acid transporter 8; ROS, reactive oxygen species; LDH, lactate dehydrogenase; MDA, malondialdehyde; SOD, superoxide dismutase; YAP, yes-associated protein; SIRT1, silent information regulator 1; MCT4, monocarboxylic acid transporter 4; VEGFa, vascular endothelial growth factor a; VEGFR2, vascular endothelial growth factor R2 ; TGF- $\beta{}$ , transforming growth factor $\beta{}$ ; IL-1 $\beta{}$ , interleukin $\beta{}$ ; LC3-II, LC3-autophagy marker II; TC, total cholesterol; TG, triglyceride; LDL-C, low- density lipoprotein cholesterol; ALT, alanine aminotransferase; HDL-C, high density lipoprotein cholesterol; GSH-Px, glutathione peroxidase; IR, insulin resistance; LDLR, low-density lipoprotein receptor; P62, P62-chelate 1; EndoMT, endothelium-mesenchymal transforming factor; VSMC, vascular smooth muscle cells; P-Drp-1/Drp-1, p-dynamin-related protein 1/dynamin-related protein 1; Fis1, fission 1 mitochondrial protein; Mfn2, mitochondrial fusion protein 2; Nix, BNIP3-like Protein X; LC3B, light chain 3b; lnc-MKI67IP-3, antigen identified by monoclonal antibody Ki-67; I $\kappa{}$ B $\beta{}$ , inhibitor of nuclear factor $\kappa{}$ B inhibitory protein; GSH, glutathione; HsCRP, high sensitivity C- reactive protein; NOX4, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase 4; PDK1, 3- phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase 1; VLDL, very low-density lipoprotein; GLUT3, glucose transporter 3; Slc2a1, solute carrier family 2 member 1; PRKAA1, protein kinase AMP activates catalytic subunit $\alpha{}$ 1; TNF-R1, tumor necrosis factor R1; HIF-1 $\beta{}$ , hypoxia inducible factor 1 $\beta{}$ ; MMP, matrix metalloproteinases; dvWF, dvon Willebrand factor; VEGFR-2, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2; LOX-1, lectin-like oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor 1; VE-cadherin, vascular endothelial cadherin; GSK3 $\beta$ , glycogen synthase kinase 3 $\beta$ ; NLRP3, nlr family pyrin domain containing 3; HDL, high density lipoprotein; $\uparrow$ , increase; $\downarrow$ , decrease.