Table 2. Summary of outcomes of surgical procedures.

GTR: Gross total resection, TCA: Transcranial approach, DI: Diabetes insipidus, CSF: Cerebrospinal fluid

Surgical Procedure	Types of Tumors Resected	Favorable Outcomes	Complication
Endoscopic Endonasal Approach [145-155]	Endocrinologically active tumors, olfactory groove meningiomas, skull base, pituitary tumors, craniopharyngioma, intraconal intraorbital, tuberculum sellae meningiomas.	Better visualization and direct access to the lesion without causing much damage to the brain. Less invasive higher rate of GTR, shorter hospital stays for lower incidence of visual deterioration than TCA. Lower incidence of DI. Higher rate of visual improvement.	CSF leaks and extra-neurological complications. Higher incidence of headaches and hypopituitarism.
Tubular Retractor System [138-144]	Subcortical, neoplastic, cystic, infectious and vascular lesions which include colloids, metastatic lesions, glioblastomas, low-grade glioma, hemangiomas, lymphoma, neurocytomas, craniopharyngioma, radiation necrosis tumor, pituitary, and adenoma.	Minimizing the retraction pressure and reducing local brain injury. Good GTR, shorter operative time, reduced blood loss, accelerated post-operative recovery, complete absence of post-operative central nervous system infections, decreased perioperative complications like seizure, cerebral edema and venous infarction.	Limited visualization and lack of manual manipulation. Early complications: confusion, short-term memory difficulties, seizures, meningitis, motor and visual deficits. Permanent complications: aphasia, hemiparesis and long-term seizures. Hydrocephalus and CSF fistula.
Stereotactic Radiosurgery [156-169]	Meningioma, paraganglioma, hemangioblastoma, craniopharyngioma and brain metastases.	Increased local control and better long-term outcomes lesser cognitive deterioration.	Increased dosage can irradiate neighboring normal tissue, inadequate dosage will increase the chances of local tumor recurrence.
Awake Craniotomy [101-121]	Gliomas, meningiomas and metastatic brain tumors.	Better preservation of neurological functions, near-total to total extent of GTR, while preserving neurological functions, better suited when excising tumors from eloquent areas, better survival rates and fewer readmissions, reduced hospital stays with early mobilization of the patient.	Dependent on imaging modalities. Blood loss may be comparable or greater than that of traditional surgeries. May have chances of intra-operative epilepsies. Require advanced technologies which may not be available at all facilities. Does not provide any cosmetic advantage. May not be tolerated by all or uncooperative patients.
Keyhole Craniotomy [122-137]	Glioblastoma, meningioma, craniopharyngioma, schwannoma and metastatic brain tumors.	Lesser tissue damage and brain retraction. Better preservation of neurological functions, good visualization of tumor and its surroundings resulting in good GTR. Can even access deeper areas with minimal injury to the surrounding structure, less scaring compared to other techniques, great cosmetic outcomes. Reduced hospital stays and shorter recovery period.	Difficulty in illumination and accessing certain areas because of small opening. Difficult to maneuver instruments and achieve hemostasis due to the smaller surgical aperture. Higher incidence of CSF leaks and hyposmia in certain cases. Require advanced instruments which may not be available at all facilities. Can be used in selective cases only. Has a greater learning curve and difficult to perform.