Understanding the influence of digital technology on human cognitive functions: A narrative review

Abstract

In the era of rapid digitalization, the widespread integration of digital technology into various aspects of daily life has sparked significant interest in understanding its impact on cognitive mental processes. While the emerging data suggests that its influence may be positive or negative, the depth of evidence regarding neurobiological mechanisms remains limited. This review aims to synthesize previously published studies and develop a comprehensive framework that systematically categorizes digital technologies, the cognitive functions they impact, and developmental stages around the concept of neuroplasticity, while clearly illustrating their interconnections. Despite acknowledged limitations, through an exhaustive approach, this paper intends to offer a dynamic perspective on the effects of digital media on the human brain, before the onset of addiction.

Introduction

Over the past two decades, a substantial body of studies ranging from the basis to the top of the evidence-based medicine pyramid has unraveled important effects on human cognitive processes related to the use of digital media (Li et al., 2015), especially in younger generations and middle-aged adults. Moreover, among the most prevailing human characteristics lies the flexibility to cope with environmental challenges through both biological and behavioural means (Brown, 2019).

Underlying this concept, neuroimaging studies with taxi drivers, pianists, and jugglers highlight a phenomenon of neuroplasticity known as the “use-it-or-lose-it” principle, which shows that processes of learning and memory can stimulate the growth of new synaptic connections (“use it”) while eliminating neuronal synaptic connections that are rarely used (“lose it”) (Choudhury and McKinney, 2013, Maguire et al., 2000, Pantev et al., 1998, Pascual-Leone et al., 1995). In addition, one of the most influential ideas about how learning-related changes might occur in brains was first articulated around seventy years ago, Hebb’s postulate. This rule states that “neurons that fire together wire together”, suggesting that the connection between two neurons strengthens when they are activated simultaneously, leading to enhanced communication and potential for learning and memory formation.

Connected to that, Maslow’s extended hierarchy of cognitive needs (Maslow, 1943) features the essential human demand to call upon new technological inventions to facilitate daily tasks, which, through time, turns highly plastic cognitive systems vulnerable to significant alterations. For example, Cohen and Dehaene (Dehaene and Cohen, 2007) suggested that the acquisition of a new tool, skill, or thought would gradually reshape precedent brain systems responsible for the same functions. These results were demonstrated by the acquisition of reading and arithmetic abilities that gave rise to specialized brain regions for orthographic processing and arithmetic functions. This line of thought establishes a relatively enduring idea that every human digital activity or task performed regularly, especially on smartphones, social networks, video games, or chatbots, might leave a watermark on the brain, whether good or bad, depending on the type of the activity, time of exposure and difficulty level (Korte, 2020).

Despite this rich amount of studies, several questions regarding the long-term effects of digital technology remain to be addressed (General OSG, O. of the S, 2023). Most of the studies referenced in the literature offer a limited analysis of specific digital media components, overlooking the effects of conversational artificial intelligence (AI) models or rapid information retrieval through search engines. Additionally, a closer look at the literature concerning the relationship between digital media, cognition, and predisposing factors, encounters several deficiencies, as seen in a study by Choudhury et al (Choudhury and McKinney, 2013, Firth et al., 2020). Moreover, observational studies still correspond to the majority, demonstrating a notable scarcity of intervention studies. Furthermore, just like most studies in the same field, the focus primarily lies on delineating neurobiological mechanisms, elucidating what the effects are but failing to address the crucial question of how (Bavelier et al., 2010, Small et al., 2020, Lodge and Harrison, 2019).

By addressing these gaps, this paper aims to synthesize previously published studies and develop a comprehensive framework that systematically categorizes digital technologies, the cognitive functions they impact, and the developmental stages around the concept of neuroplasticity, while clearly illustrating their interconnections. The contributions made in this research hold wide applicability, since they provide a dynamic perspective on these effects, not only exploring the mere usage of video games or social media but also encompassing the general implementation of digital media daily by average individuals, before the onset of addiction. Therefore, these advantages make this approach particularly valuable and relevant across various settings and populations.

Digital media and cognitive functions

Several recent studies establish the idea that every human digital activity performed regularly, including the use of the internet, smartphones, and the emerging conversational artificial intelligence (AI) models, might leave a watermark on the brain due to neuroplasticity. Although it still lacks robust evidence to support its validity, the term “digital dementia” (Spitzer, 2012) is used to describe a set of cognitive impairments, such as memory loss, attention deficit, and impaired decision-making abilities, attributable to the excessive use of digital technology (Manwell et al., 2022). To properly address the research question, this section will focus on the most commonly used digital devices such as smartphones, internet search engines, video gaming, social networks, and artificial intelligence, and their implications regarding cognitive functions around developmental stages. A visual representation of this framework is provided in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1.

Visual representation of the effects of digital technology on human cognitive functions through developmental stages. This circular diagram has three concentric layers, which from the inside out, represent an interrelationship between the most used digital devices, the cognitive functions they affect, and the developmental stages, all around the concept of neuroplasticity. The digital devices section is divided into five main sections, each color-coded to indicate the potential nature of the cognitive effects: red for negative, green for positive, and yellow for mixed outcomes. The third layer corresponds to the most impacted developmental stages. Artificial intelligence particularly provides positive effects for teenagers and older adults. On the other hand, smartphone usage has a negative impact, especially for toddlers and young adults. Although video games have been associated with the improvement of selective attention, excessive use may lead to reduced sustained attention and high levels of distractibility, particularly in children.

Smartphones and laptops

Sensory processing

Concerning smartphone usage, seminal contributions have been made by researchers, who with the use of electroencephalography (EEG) measured the cortical potentials in response to mechanical touch on the thumb, index, and middle fingertips of touchscreen phone users and nonusers, and reached the conclusion that even simple and repetitive interactions through the smartphone’s touchscreen reshaped sensory processing from the hand. Collectively, these results show that excessive touchscreen use can reorganize the somatosensory cortex, suggesting that cortical processing is continuously shaped via digital media use (Korte, 2020).

Learning and attention

Although not traditionally classified as an executive function, learning also relies on cognitive control functions. There are several possible mechanisms through which digital device use can impair learning function. One mechanism is through the effects of blue light emitted by digital screens, which has been found to disrupt the sleep-wake cycle and cognitive function by suppressing melatonin production.

Concerning attentional processes, a great number of existing studies in the broader literature have shown that, beneath these frameworks, attention is the major of all cognitive functions that are consistently featured as the primary place where technologies are having a negative impact (Lodge and Harrison, 2019). This influence was analyzed by Hembrooke and Gay, (Hembrooke and Gay, 2003) after studying the effects of multitasking in two groups of students that heard the same lecture and tested immediately after, yet with differences in the access to laptops during lectures. Results showed a significant decrement in performance for the group in the open laptop condition and attributed that unsatisfactory performance to the divided attention. These results tie well with studies wherein it was found that the groups of students who used some form of technology such as social media, texting, and email performed poorly compared to those engaged in note-taking or task-related activities. From this standpoint, the attendance at lectures associated with the use of digital technologies for off-task activities might have a detrimental impact on learning (Wood et al., 2012).

Another challenge the digital environment poses for attention is the concept of “attentional overload”. This psychological condition results from excessive demands on attention related to the capacity of an individual’s attentional resources. One of the features of the multifaceted digital era is the constant demand to face a wide range of stimuli, including alerts, notifications, social media updates, emails, texts, and far more. In line with this thought, studies have shown that attentional overload associated with one of its most common symptoms — continuous partial attention — can have a negative impact on cognitive tests, (Firth et al., 2019) academic achievement, (Junco and Cotten, 2012) and a substantial decrease in focus time to less than seven minutes, (Rosen et al., 2013) besides a lower performance on comprehension tests (Rosen et al., 2011).

It is also worth noting that, unless the ability to minimize all distractions when needed is present, the constant urge to stay connected, driven perhaps by the “fear of missing out” despite having all the resources to retrieve information at any time and place, can create a vicious cycle ( Fig. 2) of continuously dividing and shifting attention across multiple tasks or stimuli without fully immersing in any one of them, leading to a superficial understanding of information besides reduced productivity.

Fig. 2.

Divided attention cycle. This feedback loop starts with an initial effort to concentrate on tasks and maintain focus (focus attempt). Due to multiple distractions from the environment such as incoming notifications, or social media alerts (divided attention), the ability to understand a certain type of information will drastically decrease (superficial understanding), as well as productivity (reduced productivity).

Spatial memory

Along with the impact of digital tools on memory, numerous researchers have recognized that increased usage of the Global Positioning System (GPS) is linked to a substantial decline in hippocampal-dependent spatial memory (Dahmani and Bohbot, 2020). Also, the mere act of taking digital photographs seems to decrease recall accuracy for details of images, due to the required time and attention to get the best shot of the entire object, which dismisses the object from memory for trusting the camera to “remember” (Henkel, 2013).

Inhibitory and reward self-control

The brain has numerous systems for executing functions related to cognitive control, decision-making, and self-regulation abilities. These functions play a crucial role in planning, organizing, and regulating thoughts to achieve goals, solve problems, and adapt to external circumstances.

Although technological advancements have occupied a finite space in consumers’ lives, smartphones have been transcending these limitations, playing as constant companions and offering boundless worldwide interconnection. At this stage of understanding, prior research (Ward et al., 2017) to test the “smartphone-induced brain drain” hypothesis, a side effect of excessive smartphone use, has provided evidence that the mere presence of consumers’ smartphones may adversely affect inhibitory control even when consumers are not consciously attending to them, thereby leaving fewer resources available for other tasks.

A series of recent studies have indicated that excessive digital use, especially when associated with social media, can reduce levels of reward self-control (Shanmugasundaram and Tamilarasu, 2023). Additionally, the variable ratio, i.e., partial schedule of reinforcement inherent to device checking, may perpetuate compulsive behaviors characterized by quick frequent inspections of the device for incoming information, e.g., from news, social media, or personal contacts (Firth et al., 2019). Given this, such habits could potentially engage with the cortico-striatal dopaminergic system due to their readily available nature (Wilcockson et al., 2018).

Internet search engines

Regarding the usage of the internet, which seems to be the most explored digital technology component, researchers have pointed to multiple advantages and disadvantages of cognitive systems. Advancements in neurobiological research methods, including MRI and Positron Emission Tomography (PET), have linked the excessive use of the internet to structural and functional impairments in the orbitofrontal, dorsolateral prefrontal, and cingulate cortices, which are brain regions crucial for managing and controlling other cognitive functions.

Long-term memory

In a series of pre-post-intervention studies following a six-day internet search paradigm, young adults were given an hour per day of internet search tasks and undertook an array of cognitive and neuroimaging assessments before and after training. Results showed reduced regional homogeneity, functional connectivity, and synchronization of associated brain regions involved in long-term memory formation and retrieval (e.g., temporal gyrus) (Bell et al., 2015). A paradigmatic example that highlights the effect of online cloud storage and search engines on human memory performance was a study in which digital natives were made to believe that facts they had been asked to memorize would be stored in online cloud storage. Under this assumption, they performed more poorly than subjects who expected to have to rely on their brain memory function (Korte, 2020).

Despite that negative correlation, the six-day internet training increased white matter integrity of the fiber tracts connecting the frontal, occipital, parietal, and temporal lobes, significantly more than the non-search control condition. A similar pattern of results was shown by Storm and Stone (Storm and Stone, 2015), where cognitive offloading via digital devices improved people’s ability to focus on aspects that are not immediately retrievable, thus remembering these better in the future. This line of findings seems to support the emergent hypothesis that relying on the internet for factual memory storage may produce cognitive benefit in other areas, perhaps by “freeing up” cognitive resources (Bell et al., 2015). However, research has provided evidence for a decreased performance in memory recall for even simple tasks, which turns the process of remembering the information itself harder than using search engines (Shanmugasundaram and Tamilarasu, 2023).

Moreover, several methods are reported in the literature to address the issue of “transactive memory”, a mechanism that involves the distribution of memory tasks among group members, where each member is responsible for remembering certain information while relying on others to remember different pieces. According to some researchers, the internet with its vast and accessible information might serve as an efficient form of external transactive memory, since rather than retain information internally, people remember where information can be accessed (Sparrow et al., 2011, Ward, 2013, Wegner et al., 1985).

Regarding functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) research, two large-scale cortical streams of visual processing, the ventral and dorsal streams, most known as the “what” and “where” streams due to their indicated roles in storing either the recognition of the specific content and external location of incoming information, respectively, have been well explored. Although there was no effect on activation of the dorsal stream, results showed that retrieving specific information through the internet instead of encyclopedias was associated with the poorer recall of information due to the reduced activation of the ventral stream during information gathering (Dong and Potenza, 2015). However, a different pattern of results was obtained by a group of researchers that tracked neural activity during simulated internet searches and suggested that simply searching online may represent a form of mental exercise that can strengthen neural circuits (Dahmani and Bohbot, 2020).

For the most part, this increased reliance on external memory sources might not necessarily be dysfunctional, since the cyclical communication system is built on offloading information and computational processes to external tools (e.g. taking notes on paper, writing shopping lists, doing calculations in a spreadsheet) and reloading the same information back to the internal processes (e.g. reading notes, retrieving calculation results), has been used since the analogue-digital integration era, i.e., a very long time.

Decision-making and complex reasoning

Cross-sectional studies using fMRI to explore patterns of cerebral activation during information gathering from search engines or textbooks have revealed that the extent of brain activation while reading text was similar in the net-naive (individuals with minimal internet search engine experience) and net-savvy (individuals with more extensive experience) groups. In contrast, during the internet search task, the net naive group showed a neural activation pattern similar to their text reading task, whereas the net savvy group demonstrated significant increases in neural circuits responsible for decision-making and complex reasoning, including the frontal pole, anterior cingulate, and hippocampus. These observations suggest that in middle-aged and older adults, prior experience with internet searching may alter the brain’s responsiveness in neural circuits controlling decision-making and complex reasoning (Small et al., 2020).

Notably, studies examining the acute effects of internet usage across modern society are mixed (Firth et al., 2020, Firth et al., 2019). A great number of positive scenarios have been observed to induce long-term alterations in the neuronal architecture of the human brain, including second-language acquisition, (Osterhout et al., 2008) learning new motor skills, (Scholz et al., 2009) and even formal education (Draganski et al., 2006). However, several authors have recognized that the extensive usage of internet search engines for factual information may unfavorably impact brain areas associated with memory through long-term storage and attention through sustained concentration (Firth et al., 2020).

Video gaming

Attention

Green and Bavelier (Green and Bavelier, 2003) after comparing two groups of gamers and non-gamers to ascertain if the attentional demands of modern video games enhance video gamers’ attentional abilities, found that video gamers showed superior attentional abilities on several standard cognitive tasks, such as ignoring distracting information. Despite this, upon comparing these findings with the same experiment conducted by Boot et al., (Boot et al., 2008) which encompassed a broader range of cognitive tasks than previously tested, it remains unclear to what extent attentional differences between gamers and non-gamers are due to pre-existing group disparities or video game play specifically.

Overall, although video games have been associated with the improvement of certain aspects of attention like selective attention and visual-spatial processing, excessive use may lead to reduced sustained attention and high levels of distractibility, particularly in children (Bavelier et al., 2010).

Decision-making

In a recent randomized controlled trial (RCT), it was found that six weeks of participation in an online role-playing game led to significant reductions in grey matter volume within the orbitofrontal cortex, a brain region implicated in impulse control and decision-making processes (Firth et al., 2019).

Spatial skills

Nonetheless, studies of video gaming influence are well documented. It is also well acknowledged that the use of video game training programs, besides the refinement of orientation abilities, may improve several different spatial skills, such as mental rotation, cognitive mapping, and spatial memory, (McLaren-Gradinaru et al., 2023) suggesting that the hippocampal formation, the entorhinal and parietal cortices might play a crucial role during these programs.

Social media

Attention

Some authors have suggested the idea that a state of perpetual partial attention can be created by the constant notifications, updates, or scrolling feeds from social media platforms, drawing the individual’s attention away from significant tasks (Shanmugasundaram and Tamilarasu, 2023).

Social cognition and emotional regulation

Emotional regulation and social cognition are two interconnected aspects of cognitive functioning that are essential in navigating social interactions and relationships. Previous research has emphasized that the excessive use of social media can decrease grey matter volume in the amygdala, anterior and posterior cingulate cortices, insula, and lingual gyrus (Montag et al., 2017). In addition, some consumers may also develop an emotional attachment to online friends and arousing content which can contribute to their addictive desire to maintain their online presence (Zhou et al., 2011).

Regarding social media, Kross et al (Kross et al., 2013). employed a cross-lagged analysis and revealed that online social networks, particularly Facebook and Instagram, significantly impact subjective well-being, being influenced by factors such as loneliness and harmful social comparisons. Also, the excessive use of social networks has been linked to decreased social skills and a difficult ability to recognize facial emotions (Błachnio et al., 2016). Aimed at correlating offline and online networks, this issue has been investigated with MRI scans and found that both real-world social network size and number of Facebook friends were significantly associated with amygdala volume. However, it was also found that the number of Facebook friends was linked to structural changes in grey matter volume in other brain areas, particularly the posterior regions of the middle temporal gyrus, superior temporal sulcus, and the right entorhinal cortex, unlike the individuals’ real-world social networks (Firth et al., 2019).

Decision-making, novelty seeking, and reward self-control

Regarding executive functions, in one study, participants who spent more time on social networks showed a higher level of cognitive overload, leading to a decrease in their ability to make decisions (Junco and Cotten, 2012). As has been shown, several authors have recognized that novelty seeking is a fundamental aspect of cognition associated with a tendency to explore new experiences. While some digital platforms provide an abundance of novel stimuli, fostering curiosity and broadening intellectual horizons, the virtually infinite availability of engaging content can lead to cognitive fatigue and a restricted perception of reality due to the selection and amplification of certain types of content (i.e. the algorithm), which filters and prioritizes content, according to users’ pre-existing beliefs or preferences (Eppler and Mengis, 2008).

Equally important, extreme internet users are more likely to present signs of impulsivity, suggesting that the instant feedback provided by the online environment might promote a need for instant gratification (Carr, 2020). These findings support the notion that social media platforms act as altered perceptual filters, distorting perception and reinforcing biases (Pariser, 2011). This process seems to involve the mesolimbic system, suggesting that these types of highly rewarding activities may lead to desensitization to reward and loss of ability to enjoy pleasure, most known as anhedonia.

Artificial intelligence

Decision-making

Equally important, AI researchers have been developing and refining large language models (LLMs) that exhibit remarkable capabilities across a variety of domains and tasks including abstraction, comprehension, coding, mathematics, and much more (Bubeck et al., 2023). This human intelligence simulation is progressively intertwined with human cognition, impacting how we think, learn, and perhaps, make decisions (Shanmugasundaram and Tamilarasu, 2023). From an advantageous perspective, LLMs such as ChatGPT which is one of the largest and most powerful ones can help users explore different and new perspectives, supporting informed decision-making (Matei, 2010). Besides, AI-powered brain-computer interfaces and Virtual Reality (VR) environments that are being developed, can augment human cognition and provide immersive experiences that can improve cognitive responses to real-life scenarios (Freeman et al., 2017). In contrast, according to Ahmad et al., (Ahmad et al., 2023) it must be pointed out that AI’s impact on human decision-making abilities is significant, presenting findings that suggest the contribution to human laziness and undermining of autonomy.

Learning

Nevertheless, there are potential benefits to be gained with AI. For example, some learning platforms (e.g., Carnegie Learning) provide personalized learning experiences tailored to individual needs. These smart platforms can identify a learner’s predominant learning style and provide content accordingly (Shanmugasundaram and Tamilarasu, 2023).

Social cognition

Simultaneously, although some of its features can provide cognitive-behavioral therapy-based interventions, interactions with social robots or chatbots can disrupt individuals’ perceptions, attitudes, and social interactions (Tao et al., 2010).

Spatial cognition and navigation skills

AI-based GPS navigation systems such as Google Maps or Waze may affect brain areas related to spatial cognition and navigation skills (Iaria et al., 2009).

Developmental stages distinctiveness

Digital use impacts age groups in many ways, affecting children, young adults, and older adults differently. Understanding its unique effects and developmental factors that influence these impacts is essential for encouraging healthy and positive digital engagement throughout all stages of life. This section will categorize the following groups into children (0 – 11 years) and their association with smartphones, young (12 – 25 years) and early adults (26 – 40 years) concerning social media, and middle (41 – 65 years) and late adults (65 + years) regarding smart gadgets.

Children

From one perspective, digital media has been recognized to enhance cognitive skills, creativity, and digital literacy, allowing children to educate themselves. However, excessive and uncontrolled digital use, especially smartphones during childhood has been associated with adverse consequences, such as reduced attention spans, lower academic performances, and social-emotional challenges due to limited social interactions. As shown in one study, smartphone usage in toddlers through caregivers was associated with lower expressive language skills (Radesky et al., 2014), and excessive screen time has been linked to deficits in cognitive development in children (Nikken and Schols, 2015).

Young and early adults

When it comes to digital technology in young adults, social media and online communication channels are the most engaging activities. Prior research suggests that digital use can also affect various aspects of their lives such as their mental health, academic performance, and socio-emotional status. As well, excessive engagement with social platforms like Facebook, has been linked to lower academic performance, particularly among college students (Kirschner and Karpinski, 2010).

Middle and late-adults

Although older adults may have lower rates of digital technology adoption, their engagement is increasing. Most of the prior research on this group has emphasized that digital use might have potential benefits, including enhanced cognitive functioning, social connectedness, and access to health information. For example, cognitive training through smartphone apps, laptop programs, or wearable gadgets offers mental exercises designed to target specific cognitive domains, such as memory, attention, and executive functions, to improve cognitive abilities (Ziegler et al., 2022). In terms of social networks, their use has been associated with reduced loneliness and improved social support (Cotten et al., 2014).

Critical analysis and synthesis

This review examined the influence of digital technology, particularly the use of smartphones, internet search engines, video gaming, social media, and artificial intelligence, in the context of cognitive functions based on the concept of neuroplasticity. Breaking down the main points, the findings suggest that the effects are mixed, presenting a great number of both beneficial and detrimental effects depending on the developmental stage, extent and nature of usage.

Regarding the impact of each digital media component, it has been observed that the excessive touchscreen through smartphones can continuously reshape the somatosensory cortex. Through the effects of blue light emitted by digital screens, smartphones have been found to disrupt the sleep-wake cycle and cognitive function by suppressing melatonin production. Concerning the attentional processes, the attendance at lectures associated with the use of digital technologies for off-task activities might have a detrimental impact on learning. Another challenge the digital environment poses for attention is the concept of “attentional overload”. In line with this thought, studies have shown that attentional overload associated with continuous partial attention can have a negative impact on cognitive tests, and academic achievement, besides a lower performance on comprehension tests. Moreover, the “smartphone-induced brain drain” hypothesis has proved that the mere presence of consumers’ smartphones may adversely affect inhibitory control even when consumers are not consciously attending to them.

Concerning the usage of the internet, which seems to be the most explored digital technology component, researchers have pointed to multiple advantages and disadvantages of cognitive systems. This line of findings seems to support the emergent hypothesis that besides serving as an efficient form of external transactive memory by “freeing up” other cognitive resources and strengthening neural circuits with some internet tasks like second-language acquisition, formal education, or information gathering, its excessive use, particularly the reliance on search engines may negatively affect memory and attention. Cross-sectional studies using fMRI to explore patterns of cerebral activation during information gathering from search engines or textbooks, have revealed that the extent of brain activation while reading text was similar between individuals with minimal and more extensive internet search engine experience. However, during the internet search task, the first group showed a neural activation pattern like their text reading task, whereas the second group demonstrated significant increases in neural circuits responsible for decision-making and complex reasoning.

As regards the usage of video games, it was found that six weeks of participation in an online role-playing game led to significant reductions in grey matter volume within the orbitofrontal cortex, a brain region implicated in impulse control and decision-making processes. Following this, although the use of video games may refine selective attention and visual-spatial orientation, excessive use can lead to high levels of distractibility and reduce sustained attention, particularly in children. Overall, it remains unclear to what extent attentional differences between gamers and non-gamers are due to pre-existing group disparities or video game play specifically.

Along with social networks, prolonged exposure was associated with impairments in reward self-control and decision-making abilities, due to a high level of cognitive overload. Also, in terms of emotional regulation, the abnormal emotional attachment developed by social network consumers was associated with emotional reactivity and delayed emotional recovery. Moreover, it was found that the number of Facebook friends was linked to structural changes in grey matter volume in other brain areas, particularly the posterior regions of the middle temporal gyrus, superior temporal sulcus, and the right entorhinal cortex, unlike the individuals’ real-world social networks. Equally important, some of these findings support the notion that social media platforms act as altered perceptual filters, distorting perception and reinforcing biases. Advancements in neurobiological research methods have linked the excessive use of social networks to structural and functional impairments in the orbitofrontal, dorsolateral prefrontal, and cingulate cortices, which are brain regions crucial for managing and controlling other cognitive functions.

Finally, large language models like ChatGPT, despite providing an abundance of diverse perspectives and supporting decision-making, may also contribute to cognitive laziness. Besides all that, despite AI-powered learning platforms offering personalized learning according to the individual’s learning style, interactions with social robots or chatbots might disrupt individuals’ perceptions, attitudes and social interactions.

Taking all of this into account, several brain imaging techniques demonstrate that, apparently, technology affects visual perception, language, and cognition in general. As shown by Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI), premature extensive screen-based media use is significantly associated with lower microstructural integrity of white matter tracts that support language and literacy skills in preschoolers (Hoehe and Thibaut, 2020). Overall, the emerging data suggest that constant technology usage impacts brain function in both positive and negative ways. Some representative studies exploring this relationship are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1.

Representative publications exploring associations between digital technology usage and cognitive functions.

Reference	Finding summary
Smartphones and laptops
Ward et al., 2017 Shanmugasundaram and Tamilarasu, 2023 Hembrooke and Gay, 2003 Firth et al., 2019 Junco and Cotten, 2012 Rosen et al., 2013 Dahmani and Bohbo, 2020 Henkel, 2013 Internet Dahmani and Bohbot, 2020 Firth et al., 2019 Korte, 2020 Pariser, 2011 Sparrow et al., 2011 Ward, 2013 Small et al., 2020 Eppler and Mengis, 2008	The mere presence of consumers’ smartphones may affect inhibitory control even when consumers are not consciously attending to them Blue light emitted by digital screens may disrupt the sleep-wake cycle and cognitive function Attendance to lectures with divided attention might decrease academic performance Attentional overload might decrease cognitive tests Attentional overload might decrease academic achievement Attentional overload might decrease focus time GPS is linked to a decline in hippocampal-dependent spatial memory Taking digital photographs might decrease accuracy recall for details of images Searching online may represent a form of mental exercise that can strengthen neural circuits Internet search tasks are associated with reduce regional homogeneity, functional connectivity and synchronization in brain regions associated with long-term memory (e.g., temporal gyrus) Internet search tasks increase white matter integrity of the fiber tracts connecting frontal, occipital, parietal and temporal lobes Relying on the internet for factual memory storage may produce cognitive benefits by “freeing up” cognitive resources Individuals who believe that the facts they had been asked to memorize would be stored in online cloud storage, perform more poorly than subjects who expect to rely on their brains Cognitive offloading via digital devices improved people’s ability to focus on aspects that are not immediately retrievable, remembering these better in the future The internet might serve as an efficient form of external transactive memory (rather than retaining information internally, people remember where information can be accessed) Prior experience with internet searching may alter brain’s responsiveness in neural circuits controlling decision-making and complex reasoning Virtually infinite availability of engaging content can lead to cognitive fatigue and restricted perception of reality Digital platforms provide an abundance of novel stimuli, foster curiosity and broad intellectual horizons
Social networks Junco and Cotten, 2012 Montag et al., 2017 Zhou et al., 2011 Błachnio et al., 2016 Firth et al., 2019 Pariser, 2011	Individuals who spend more time on social networks show a higher level of cognitive overload, decreasing their ability to make decisions Excessive use of social media can decrease grey matter volume in the limbic system, increase emotional reactivity, and delay emotional recovery Excessive use of social media might lead to an emotional attachment to online friends which might contribute to their addictive desire to maintain their online presence Excessive use of social networks might decrease social skills and impair the ability to recognise facial emotions Online social networks were linked to structural changes in the posterior regions of the middle temporal gyrus, entorhinal cortex and superior temporal sulcus, unlike real-world social networks Social media platforms might act as altered perceptual filters, distorting perception and reinforcing biases
Video gaming Bavelie et al., 2010 Firth et al., 2019	Excessive use of videogames might reduce sustained attention; videogames are associated with a high level of distractibility Video games are associated with the improvement of selective attention Long days in an online role-playing game might lead to significant reductions in grey matter volume within the orbitofrontal cortex, impairing impulse control and decision-making process
Artificial intelligence Shanmugasundaram and Tamilarasu, 2023 Tao et al., 2010	AI might provide a potential benefit of providing personalized learning experiences tailored to individual needs (e.g., Carnegie learning) Interactions with social robots or chatbots can disrupt individuals’ perceptions and social interactions

Despite the broad literature, several questions and limitations remain to be addressed. Most of these studies are cross-sectional or involve a short temporal horizon, lacking longitudinal data to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the long-term effects of digital media on cognitive processes across the lifespan. As some authors noted earlier, individual factors like age, socioeconomic status, education level, and pre-existing cognitive habits may influence both digital media usage patterns and cognitive functioning. For this reason, future research should employ rigorous experimental designs and bias control to establish causality. Even though most of the neurobiological effects are well explored, it suffers from some limitations due to failing to address the question of how they happen. Additional studies and adapting methodologies to understand more completely the key tenets of emerging technologies, such as VR and AI, are required. Moreover, only a few works in the literature demonstrate an interdisciplinary approach across fields such as neuroscience, psychology, and computer science. Integrating insights from diverse disciplines can enrich research methodologies and enhance the interpretation of findings.

Challenges, limitations, and future directions

Despite offering a dynamic perspective on the effects of digital media on the human brain, this review suffered some challenges in terms of finding relevant and reliable sources and maintaining a coherent and logical structure. Regarding the acknowledged limitations, the objectivity of the study was most likely compromised due to inherent biases, with a great potential to influence the interpretation of findings. Looking forward, further research should aim to explore these aspects in greater depth, offering a more interventional perspective on the relationship between digital media and its effects on cognitive processes.

Conclusion

On this basis, this review has developed an overarching framework to explore the potential cognitive impacts of digital media, based on the brain’s ability to change itself in response to intrinsic or extrinsic stimuli. Although the findings concerning these effects were both beneficial and detrimental, several brain imaging techniques demonstrated that, apparently, technology negatively affects crucial cognitive functions such as attention, memory and executive functions, depending on the developmental stage, extent and nature of digital media usage. Furthermore, a deeper exploration involving a longer temporal horizon and intervention studies of these complexities is required to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the long-term effects of digital media on cognitive processes across the lifespan, before addiction sets in.

Authorship

All authors listed in the manuscript have contributed substantially to the conception, design, data acquisition, analysis, and interpretation of the work. Each author has reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript and agrees to take responsibility for its content.

Data integrity

Any data presented in the manuscript are accurate and have been collected and analyzed according to established scientific standards. Any manipulation or fabrication of data has not occurred, and all data sources are identified.

Originality

The work presented in this manuscript is original and has not been published previously, nor is it under consideration for publication elsewhere. All sources of information and ideas from other works have been properly cited and acknowledged. Plagiarism: We affirm that the manuscript does not contain any plagiarized content. All text, figures, and tables are original or appropriately cited from other sources. Any borrowed material has been properly attributed to the original authors.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Eugénia Correia de Barros: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Software, Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest that could influence the interpretation or presentation of the research findings. Any financial, personal, or professional relationships that might be perceived as potential conflicts of interest are disclosed.