Meta-analytic structural equation modeling for exploring workplace friendship, well-being, and organizational commitment

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

Workplace friendships, which are informal relationships in the workplace, foster mutual trust, assistance, and emotional support and create a sense of belonging among coworkers. Employees with positive perceptions of their job responsibilities, psychological needs, and work environment experience happiness, satisfaction, and an overall sense of well-being. A heightened sense of well-being in the workplace positively affects employee satisfaction with job tasks and the work environment, reinforcing employees’ sense of belonging and organizational commitment.

OBJECTIVE:

The study proposed and validated a theoretical model, with meta-analytic structural equation modeling employed to conduct quantitative, empirical research on workplace friendships, well-being, and organizational commitment in Taiwan and to analyze correlations between relevant variables.

METHODS:

The theoretical model was further validated through structural equation modeling, which yielded favorable goodness of fit in terms of various indicators.

RESULTS:

The mediating effect of well-being was verified through bootstrapping analysis. Within a 95% confidence interval, the total effect size of workplace friendships on organizational commitment was 0.549, which is the sum of its direct effect (0.255) and indirect effect (0.294).

CONCLUSIONS:

This finding indicates that well-being plays a mediating role in the association between workplace friendships and organizational commitment. The proposed theoretical model in this study is supported. Finally, the research results are discussed, and practical suggestions are provided.

1. Research background and motivation

In diverse societies of the modern world, friendships have become crucial connections between individuals and serve as major sources of social support and strength [1, 2]. They provide channels through which people can share their thoughts and emotions, regardless of whether they are experiencing happiness or sadness. Friendships play a similar role within the workplace. The concept of friendship opportunity was first introduced by Hackman and Lawler [3], who argued that friendships are formed between employees through communication during working hours. Wright [4] developed the concept of “workplace friendships,” which refers to an interpersonal and reciprocal connection that is formed voluntarily between employees. Subsequent scholars have focused on the effects of workplace friendships on organizations. At the individual level, compared with employees who do not have workplace friendships, those who do are better able to manage their emotions, have higher job satisfaction, are more committed to their organization, and have less job stress [1, 5]. At the organizational level, the presence of strong workplace friendships has positive effects on the overall climate and effectiveness of the organization [6, 7]. Therefore, workplace friendships, despite being informal, have a substantial effect on organizations.

Organizations should foster development of emotional bonds among their employees and consider their employees’ thoughts and feelings. Attitudes toward work and thought processes affect individual job performance and organizational effectiveness. Therefore, well-being in the workplace is crucial. An examination of well-being from the perspective of organizations revealed that the internal perceptions of an employee; job characteristics; personality traits; and the environment, climate, and culture of an organization affect that employee’s well-being [8]. Studies have revealed that higher levels of perceived autonomy in the workplace can effectively enhance work abilities and foster a sense of well-being among employees, thereby enhancing their work performance [9]. Employees who experience higher levels of well-being perform better [10] and are more likely to remain in their jobs [11]. Moreover, they are more likely to identify with the organization and feel a stronger sense of dedication to the organization, leading to higher levels of organizational commitment [12].

The modern business environment is highly competitive, and the success of an organization is determined by more than selling products and recruiting talented individuals. An organization must also implement strategies for retaining employees and motivating them to work diligently on behalf of the organization, aligning the personal growth of employees with the organization’s goals. Organizational commitment is a crucial indicator of this intention and has been extensively studied [1, 12, 25]. According to several studies, “identification” and “engagement” are the core principles of organizational commitment [9, 14, 38, 59]. Individuals who have similar values to those of their organization and who perceive themselves to be integral members of the organization are more likely to be strongly committed to it and actively contribute to achieving its goals [13]. Employees who are not strongly committed to an organization may distance themselves from it and are unlikely to identify themselves as part of it, leading to adverse effects [13, 14].

A review of the literature revealed that the formation of workplace friendships precedes increased levels of well-being and organizational commitment. When employees experience mutual support, assistance, and trust among their colleagues, they perceive their work environment to be safe and comfortable, which enhances their sense of well-being [15, 16]. Organizations can promote the well-being of their employees by fostering effective communication and positive interpersonal interactions. Hsieh [5] reported that strong workplace friendships effectively increase job engagement, awareness of coworker support, environmental support, and organizational commitment. Workplace friendships and organizational commitment are positively correlated, and well-being mediates the association between workplace friendships and organizational commitment [17]. On the basis of research conducted in Taiwan on workplace friendships, well-being, and organizational commitment, the present study proposed that workplace friendships increase employee well-being, thereby increasing organizational commitment. Research on the positive effects of workplace friendships and well-being on organizational commitment is lacking; therefore, the present study filled this gap in the literature.

Research on the associations between workplace friendships, well-being, and organizational commitment in Taiwan is lacking. Several studies have investigated the positive effects of workplace friendships on well-being and the positive effects of well-being and workplace friendships on organizational commitment; however, meta-analyses collectively analyzing these variables have not been conducted. Given the positive effects of workplace friendships, well-being, and organizational commitment on both employees and organizations, the current study developed a structural model for analyzing all three variables and the correlations between them. The primary goal of this study was to verify the fitness of a theoretical model of workplace friendships, well-being, and organizational commitment through meta-analytic structural equation modeling (MASEM).

2. Literature review

2.1. Workplace friendships and well-being

According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, human needs, that is (listed from the bottom of the hierarchy to the top), human physiological, safety, belonging and love, esteem, and self-actualization needs, are satisfied in stages. Satisfying these needs ultimately leads to transcendence [18]. Organizational members being able to trust each other and work together can enhance information transmission channels, promotion opportunities, and internal rewards. Additionally, workplace friendships can provide emotional support as employees share their work-related thoughts and feelings with one another [19]. These forms of social support that workplace friendships offer [16] contribute to satisfying an individual’s needs for love and belonging, esteem, companionship, and identification, thereby promoting a sense of well-being.

A review of research on workplace friendships and well-being indicated that the emotional and social support offered by workplace friendships have positive effects on employees’ perceived well-being. Lee and Tin [20] found that workplace friendships have positive effects on the sense of well-being among full-time employees in Hong Kong. Through mutual assistance, support, emotional dependence, and the establishment of social relationships at work, employees experienced positive emotions and enhanced well-being. Similarly, Lee and Tsai [21] discovered that workplace friendships have positive effects on well-being among full-time workers. When employees subjectively perceive social support in an organization, their intrinsic needs are satisfied, leading to positive feelings and enhanced perceived well-being.

In addition to actual presentations in organizational practices, researchers have analyzed and observed similar results in specific occupations. Hsu [15] found that workplace friendships in the hospitality industry had positive effects on well-being and that higher-quality friendships were associated with a greater sense of trust and belonging, which in turn contributed to creating comfortable and safe environments that enhanced overall well-being. Liang [22] discovered that strong workplace friendships helped alleviate job stress among junior high school teachers and helped these teachers’ overcome obstacles, which in turn enhanced their sense of well-being due to the resulting positive emotions. Lin [23] observed a weak correlation between workplace friendships and well-being among educators in Kaohsiung City, Taiwan. Lin [23] also observed significant weak to strong correlations between the two dimensions of workplace friendship (collaboration and cultivation) and well-being. Lee [16] found that within the Kinmen County Government in Taiwan, stronger workplace friendships led to a greater perception of person–organization fit (P–O fit) and an increased sense of well-being among employees.

On the basis of the aforementioned empirical research findings, the present study proposed that workplace friendships have a positive and significant effect on well-being. When employees experience stronger levels of workplace friendships, the positive emotions and feelings they experience in the workplace are enhanced, which increases their sense of well-being.

Hypothesis 1: Workplace friendships are positively related to well-being.

2.2. Well-being and organizational commitment

From an organizational perspective, the sense of well-being experienced by employees in the workplace encompasses various dimensions and is influenced by personal traits, role behaviors, and the effects of internal and external environments. Wright and Cropanzano [24] argued that the work environment plays a major role in shaping an employee’s sense of well-being. By improving external factors and creating a supportive work environment, organizations can enhance employees’ perceived well-being through these factors, which can lead to improved work performance and increased retention. This process also strengthens employees’ identification with the organization, thereby fostering organizational commitment. Panaccio and Vandenberghe [25] conducted a longitudinal study and found a positive correlation between well-being and organizational commitment. The study demonstrated that when employees experience a sense of well-being in their work and are satisfied with their current conditions, they are less likely to leave their organization and are more willing to contribute to the organization’s goals [26]. Similarly, Lin et al. [27] discovered significant and positive correlations between well-being and organizational commitment as well as other factors, such as work performance, job satisfaction, and perceived organizational support, among full-time employees in Taiwan.

Although research on well-being and organizational commitment in Taiwan has provided valuable insights, researchers have also increasingly recognized the presence of mental health concerns in the workplace, indicating a need for further research on the topic that considers different perspectives. Empirical studies play a crucial role in this regard. Chen [28] conducted research in Taiwan’s financial industry and discovered a moderate correlation between well-being and organizational commitment, indicating that higher levels of well-being among employees are associated with greater satisfaction with organizational conditions and thereby lead to increased organizational commitment. Liu [29] identified three dimensions of well-being (i.e., quality of life, positive emotions, and job satisfaction) and three dimensions of organizational commitment (i.e., organizational identification, willingness to work hard, and intention to remain) among elementary school teachers in Taiwan and revealed a moderate to high and positive correlation between well-being and organizational commitment, demonstrating that well-being can effectively predict organizational commitment. Liu [29] also discovered demographic differences in perceived well-being, indicating that well-being varies among individuals of different genders, marital statuses, and educational backgrounds. Lin [30] explored the association between well-being and organizational commitment among production line workers in Taiwan and discovered that well-being significantly predicted three dimensions of organizational commitment (i.e., affective commitment, continuance commitment, and normative commitment). Higher well-being was discovered to be associated with an increase in employees’ sense of belonging to their organization, leading to lower intentions to leave. Focusing specifically on well-being and organizational commitment, Kan [31] observed low to high correlations between well-being and the subdimensions of organizational commitment. The study provided concrete evidence of a positive correlation between well-being and organizational commitment; individuals who reported a higher sense of well-being also had positive attitudes at work and experienced a greater sense of achievement and satisfaction, which in turn reinforced their organizational commitment. Yi [32] found that higher levels of well-being promoted positive feelings in the workplace and increased employees’ identification with their organization. Accordingly, these employees were more engaged in their organizational tasks, which in turn reinforced their organizational commitment.

The aforementioned empirical research findings suggest that when employees experience a greater sense of well-being, they develop greater identification with their organization and engagement with their current work conditions. Consequently, their intention to remain in the organization is strengthened and their intention to leave is reduced, leading to increased organizational commitment. In addition to reinforcing employees’ positive feelings, well-being can help achieve organizational goals by reducing organizational costs. Therefore, the current study hypothesized the following.

Hypothesis 2: Well-being is positively correlated with organizational commitment.

2.3. Workplace friendships and organizational commitment

Schutz [33] proposed the three-dimensional theory of interpersonal behavior, arguing that interpersonal interactions are shaped by inclusion, control, and affection needs. The term inclusion needs refers to an individual’s need to establish and maintain positive and steady connections with other individuals or groups. Control needs involve an individual’s need to control or be controlled by others. Affection needs refer to an individual’s need to love and to be loved in a relationship. Workplace friendships are informal interpersonal relationships that develop in relation to these needs. Mutual trust, assistance, and commitment among employees can not only improve employees’ personal task performance, contextual performance, and job satisfaction but also effectively enhance employee’s positive feelings toward their organization, which in turn reinforces organizational commitment [34].

Several studies have noted a positive correlation between workplace friendships and organizational commitment [35, 36]. Lo et al. [37] conducted a study among junior high school and elementary school teachers in Taiwan and discovered that workplace friendships play a crucial role in increasing organizational commitment among such employees. Yuan [38] observed similar outcomes among full-time and non-full-time employees across various industries in Taiwan. Weng [39] identified a moderate correlation between workplace friendship and organizational commitment among bank workers. The stronger the friendship between employees was, the more congenial the workplace climate was, with a more congenial climate leading to increased organizational commitment. Hsieh [5] found that workplace friendships were positively correlated with organizational commitment across three dimensions (i.e., value commitment, effort commitment, and retention commitment) among police officers in Taiwan. Maintaining amicable interpersonal relationships with supervisors and colleagues was found to enhance organizational commitment among the police officers. However, in contrast to previous research, Lo [40] found positive correlations between workplace friendship across two dimensions (employee–supervisor and employee–coworker) and organizational commitment across three dimensions (value commitment, effort commitment, and retention commitment) among workers in the tech industry in Taiwan. Lo [40] reported that the presence of friendly relationships among employees and supervisors predicted employee willingness to be led by supervisors, which significantly influenced the achievement of organizational goals and commitment. However, friendly relationships with coworkers led to only an increased willingness to help each other complete tasks and a reduced workload, although such relationships had a pronounced effect on effort commitment.

Taiwanese scholars have expanded the scope of research into workplace friendships and organizational commitment in organizations and occupational fields to include other groups. Tsai [41] observed positive correlations between two dimensions of workplace friendship (friendship opportunity and friendship prevalence) and three dimensions of organizational commitment (value commitment, effort commitment, and continuance commitment) among lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) employees in Taiwan and reported that the breadth and depth of the friendships formed by LGBTQ employees in the workplace had positive effects on their organizational commitment because the employees transferred their affections and commitment to the organization through these friendships.

On the basis of the aforementioned empirical research findings, the current study proposed that workplace friendships have a positive and significant effect on organizational commitment. When employees establish healthy workplace friendships, their positive feelings and commitment toward their workplace and their willingness to help the organization reach its goals are enhanced, which increases their organizational commitment.

Hypothesis 3: Workplace friendships are positively correlated with organizational commitment.

2.4. Workplace friendships, well-being, and organizational commitment

Despite considerable research having been conducted on workplace friendships, well-being, and organizational commitment in Taiwan, few studies have explored the correlations between these variables. Most studies have explored the associations between two of the variables. A review of the literature on workplace friendships revealed that workplace friendships are perceived to be a manifestation of interpersonal relationships within organizations, allowing coworkers to share their experiences and values within the workplace through their mutual trust and commitment. The closer coworkers’ relationship is, the more willing they are to offer assistance to the other member of the relationship [42]. Lin et al. [27] and Lin [43] have reported that supportive forces and interpersonal networks within an organization positively influence employees’ perceived well-being and that being in a comfortable and supportive environment leads employees to perceive a P–O fit, leading to enhanced positive feelings and reduced negative feelings and behaviors toward the organization.

Hung [44] explored the factors influencing well-being from an organizational perspective and identified positive psychological capital, work autonomy, and coworker relationships as notable contributors to an organizational member’s sense of well-being. An individual with more positive psychological capital is better equipped to handle coworker relationships, which in turn influence the individual’s perception of well-being. Higher levels of well-being are associated with greater job and environmental satisfaction, improved work efficiency and performance, strengthened identification with the organization, and increased organizational commitment [26].

Mowday et al. [45] expanded upon the organizational commitment model developed by Steers [46] by introducing various antecedents and outcomes of organizational commitment. They identified personal characteristics, role-related characteristics, structural characteristics, and work experience as the primary antecedents of organizational commitment. Work experience includes factors such as an individual’s perceived personal importance to the organization, their expectations with respect to the organization, and the extent to which they feel they can depend on the organization. Meyer et al. [47] conducted a meta-analysis and identified a significant correlation between perceived well-being, affective factors, and organizational commitment. When individuals do not feel valued in the workplace or experience negative feelings, their job and environmental satisfaction tend to decrease, which has physical and mental effects and ultimately weakens organizational commitment. Conversely, feelings of well-being at work increase an individuals’ job and environmental satisfaction, reinforcing organizational commitment.

On the basis of the cited research, the present study proposed that workplace friendships influence organizational commitment and that well-being mediates this association. That is, when individuals perceive themselves to have workplace friendships, their sense of well-being increases, reinforcing their organizational commitment. Conversely, if individuals perceive themselves to have workplace friendships but have a low sense of well-being, their organizational commitment decreases.

Hypothesis 4: Well-being has a mediating effect on the association between workplace friendships and organizational commitment.

3. Research method

3.1. Scope of literature

In this study, a meta-analysis was conducted of previous empirical and quantitative studies on workplace friendships, well-being, and organizational commitment. The studies included in the meta-analysis were primarily obtained from the National Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations in Taiwan, Airiti Library, and Google Scholar. The search was conducted using the keywords “workplace friendship,” “well-being,” and “organizational commitment” in pairs. The sample articles were required to include the correlation coefficient and reliability of the variable pairs. The collected literature included journal articles, theses, and dissertations. The following three criteria were applied in the selection of sample studies in the meta-analysis:

• a.Quantitative research methods were used in the studies and data were gathered through questionnaire surveys; qualitative studies were excluded.
• b.Access to the full-text and numerical data was available, with this information presented in a digital format.
• c.The study did not have considerable discrepancies between the results and the hypotheses, an inadequate sampling process, or a low survey recovery rate.

A search of the literature published from January 1, 2011, to December 31, 2022, led to identification of 31 articles and 200 theses and dissertations with “workplace friendship” as a keyword, 692 articles and 2663 theses and dissertations with “well-being” as a keyword, and 428 articles and 1459 theses and dissertations with “organizational commitment” as a keyword. Among these, four academic publications and four theses and dissertations focused on quantitative and empirical research encompassing both “workplace friendship” and “well-being.” Furthermore, 4 academic publications and 24 theses and dissertations explored both “well-being” and “organizational commitment.” One academic publication and eight theses and dissertations focused on “workplace friendship” and “organizational commitment.” Finally, 8 articles and 28 theses and dissertations were selected, with the final sample comprising 36 studies.

3.2. Data analysis

Data were analyzed in two stages. The first stage involved collection and analysis of data. The second stage involved validation of the goodness of fit of the theoretical model through structural equation modeling (SEM). The details of the process are as follows:

• 1Stage I: Data collection and analysis

  In this stage, relevant literature, sample sources, and data related to the study variables were gathered. The correlations among relevant variables were analyzed using techniques proposed by Hunter and Schmidt [48] and Rosenthal [49], and a meta-analytical relation matrix was generated.

• 2Stage II: Goodness of fit validation through SEM

  The data and relation matrix generated in Stage I were used to assess the goodness of fit of the theoretical model through path analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and SEM. If the model did not meet the criteria for a good fit, it was modified. If the test results indicated that the proposed model fit the data, the model was considered valid.

4. Study results

4.1. Associations between workplace friendships, well-being, and organizational commitment

The present study’s meta-analysis of workplace friendship and well-being included eight papers, and a Q value of 52.468 was obtained, indicating statistical significance. The I² value was 86.658, indicating a high level of heterogeneity within the sample, with 86.658% of the variance attributable to heterogeneity. The effect size was 0.523, with a 95% confidence interval (CI) of 0.491 and 0.553. The Z value was 26.593, which exceeds the threshold for statistical significance. According to these findings, Hypothesis 1 is supported. The fail-safe number for the meta-analysis was determined to be 1458, indicating that in the presence of publication bias, 1458 articles would be required to refute the results. The tolerance value (5 N + 10, with N denoting the number of samples within the meta-analysis) was determined to be 50 articles. The fail-safe number was greater than the tolerance value, indicating a lack of publication bias in the analysis (Table 2).

Table 2.

Publication bias analysis

Variable	N	Fail-Safe N	5N + 10
Well-being	8	1458	50
Organizational commitment	19	24229	105
Workplace friendships	9	1815	55

The present study’s meta-analysis of well-being and organizational ommitment included 19 papers, and a Q value of 329.410 was obtained, indicating statistical significance. The I² value was 94.536, indicating a high level of heterogeneity within the sample, with 94.536% of the variance attributable to heterogeneity. The effect size was 0.593, with a 95% CI of 0.580 and 0.604. The Z value was 71.974, exceeding the threshold for significance. According to these findings, Hypothesis 2 is supported. The fail-safe number for well-being and organizational commitment was determined to be 24,229, indicating that in the presence of publication bias, 24,229 articles would be required to refute the results. The tolerance value (5 N + 10, with N denoting the number of samples within the meta-analysis) was determined to be 105 articles. The fail-safe number was greater than the tolerance value, indicating a lack of publication bias in the analysis (Table 2).

The present study’s meta-analysis of workplace friendships and organizational commitment included nine papers, and a Q value was 30.030 was obtained, indicating statistical significance. The I² value was 73.360, indicating a moderate level of heterogeneity within the sample, with 73.360% of variance attributable to heterogeneity. The effect size was 0.494, with a 95% CI of 0.465 and 0.522. The Z value was 27.976, exceeding the threshold for significance. According to these findings, Hypothesis 3 is supported. The fail-safe number for workplace friendship and organizational commitment was determined to be 1815, indicating that in the presence of publication bias, 1815 articles would be required to refute the results. The tolerance value (5 N + 10, with N denoting the number of samples within the meta-analysis) was determined to be 55 articles. The fail-safe number was greater than the tolerance value, indicating a lack of publication bias in the analysis (Table 2).

In summary, the pairwise meta-analyses of the three variables revealed that although the effect size of workplace friendships on organizational commitment, which was nearly 0.5, did not exceed the threshold of 0.5, the effect sizes of the other two pairs did. According to Rosenthal’s [49] classification, an effect size of ≥0.5 indicates a strong correlation between two variables. Furthermore, in a homogeneity test, the p value was <.001, indicating the presence of heterogeneity in the included studies. The results of the pairwise analysis are presented in Table 1.

Table 1.

Results of pairwise analysis

Variable pairs	Number of articles	Effect size	Z value	95% confidence interval		Test of homogeneity
				Lower bound	Upper bound	Q value	I2
Workplace friendships and well-being	8	0.523	26.593***	0.491	0.553	52.468***	86.658
Well-being and organizational commitment	19	0.593	71.974***	0.435	0.605	329.410***	94.536
Workplace friendships and organizational commitment	9	0.494	27.976***	0.465	0.522	30.030***	73.360

^***p < .001.

4.2. Validation of the theoretical model

On the basis of the meta-analysis results, we established a matrix of the associations between workplace friendships, well-being, and organizational commitment (Table 3). However, the discrepancy in the number of studies analyzed for each variable pair had potential to affect our subsequent results and result in a non-positive-definite matrix. To address this problem, we followed the suggestion of Viswesvaran and Ones [50] and calculated the overall sample size as the harmonic mean of the variable samples. According to this calculation, the overall sample size required for SEM validation was 3224.

Table 3.

Correlation matrix

Variable	Workplace friendship	Organizational commitment	Well-being
Workplace friendships	1.000
Organizational commitment	0.494	1.000
Well-being	0.523	0.593	1.000

SEM validation was conducted using SPSS AMOS 26.0, and the maximum likelihood estimation method was employed to estimate the parameters. First, we investigated whether the model contained any substandard indicators or inaccurate parameter estimates according to the preliminary fit criteria. After, the overall goodness of fit of the theoretical model was reviewed using several measures.

4.2.1. Preliminary fit criteria

As indicated in Figure 1 and Table 4, the parameter estimates for workplace friendships acting on well-being, workplace friendships acting on organizational commitment, and well-being acting on organizational commitment were all <1 and statistically significant. This indicates that the parameter estimates satisfy one of the preliminary fit criteria. The factor loadings for workplace friendships, well-being, and organizational commitment were 0.946, 0.52, and 0.52, respectively, which slightly exceed the threshold of 0.95 recommended by Bagozzi and Yi [51] but are still within the range of acceptability. Furthermore, the error terms were estimated to have positive values, and the standard error values ranged between 0.017 and 0.020. These results are consistent with Bagozzi and Yi’s preliminary fit criterion that standard error values should not be excessively high. These results indicate that the model performed efficiently.

Fig. 1.

Path diagram of theoretical model and standardized parameter estimates.

Table 4.

Validation of the mediating effect through bootstrap analysis

Parameter	Method	Estimate	Lower bound	Upper bound	p
WF⟶WB⟶OC	Bias-corrected percentile bootstrapping	0.294	0.267	0.318	0.002
	Percentile bootstrapping		0.269	0318	0.002

In summary, although the factor loading (>0.95) between workplace friendships and well-being was somewhat high, the proposed model satisfied the preliminary fit criteria: the error variations were positive and significant, the absolute values of the parameter estimates did not approach 1, and the standard error values were not excessive. Therefore, the theoretical model in this study can be considered acceptable.

4.2.2. Model goodness of fit

The analysis of the model’s fit began with investigating absolute measures of fit. The chi-square value of the model divided by the degrees of freedom was 0, which is <3, indicating acceptable fit. However, chi-square values can be easily influenced by sample size. Therefore, chi-square values are not commonly used as the sole indicator of goodness of fit and must be supplemented by other measures. Furthermore, the goodness of fit index (GFI) in this study was 1, which is greater than the threshold of 0.9 for acceptable model fit. A GFI value closer to 1 indicates a closer fit. Both the root mean square residual and standardized root mean square residual values were 0, which are smaller than their respective thresholds of 0.05 and 0.08, indicating acceptable model fit. A standardized root mean square residual of 0 indicates perfect fit. Overall, the study model demonstrated satisfactory absolute fit indices.

Regarding measures of incremental fit, the normed fit index, incremental fit index, and comparative fit index values were all 1, exceeding the threshold of 0.9. These incremental fit measures indicate the acceptability of the model. However, the parsimonious normed fit index was 0, which did not meet the threshold of 0.05. The Akaike information criterion, Bayesian information criterion, and expected cross-validation index are more suitable for assessing competition models and therefore were not applied in the present study; our theoretical model is not a competition model.

4.2.3. Internal structure fit

The individual reliabilities of workplace friendships, organizational commitment, and well-being were 0.946, 0.952, and 0.952, respectively. These scores all satisfied the standard of 0.5 for internal structure fit. The composite reliabilities of these three variables were 0.894, 0.907, and 0.907, respectively, all of which are greater than the threshold of 0.6. The average variance extracted values were 0.894, 0.907, and 0.907, respectively, all of which exceeded the threshold of 0.5 for acceptable fit. Overall, the theoretical model met all three measures of fit, indicating acceptable internal structure fit.

4.3. Mediating effect of well-being on the association between workplace friendships and organizational commitment

The mediating effect of well-being was validated through bootstrapping, specifically, percentile bootstrapping and bias-corrected percentile bootstrapping. The bootstrap sampling process was repeated 1000 times. The 95% CI did not include 0, and the p values indicated significance, confirming the presence of mediating effects (Table 4). This finding supports the assertion that well-being plays a mediating role in the association between workplace friendships and organizational commitment.

When the total effect, direct effect, and indirect effect of workplace friendships on organizational commitment were analyzed, the total effect size was significant for each variable pair. Workplace friendships had a total effect size of 0.581 on well-being, indicating a moderate direct effect. In addition, the total effect size of well-being and organizational commitment was 0.506, indicating a moderate direct effect, which is consistent with the study hypothesis. Furthermore, no indirect effect was observed between workplace friendships and well-being or between well-being and organizational commitment. Workplace friendships had a total effect size of 0.549 on organizational commitment, with the total effect size calculated as the sum of the direct effect (0.255) and indirect effect (0.294) and indicating that workplace friendships affect organizational commitment through well-being and that well-being plays a mediating role in the association between workplace friendships and organizational commitment. Therefore, Hypothesis 4 of this study is supported (Table 5).

Table 5.

Effect sizes

Total effects
	Workplace friendships	Well-being
Well-being	0.581**	0.000
Organizational commitment	0.549**	0.506**
Direct effects
	Workplace commitment	Well-being
Well-being	0.581**	0.000
Organizational commitment	0.255**	0.506**
Indirect effects
	Workplace commitment	Well-being
Well-being	0.000	0.000
Organizational commitment	0.294**	0.000

^***p < .001; ^**p < .01; ^*p < .05.

5. Discussion and suggestions

5.1. Discussion

The results of the present study are consistent with those of related research conducted in Taiwan, which also indicate a positive association between workplace friendships and well-being [20, 52]. Research conducted outside of Taiwan has also revealed a positive association between workplace friendships and well-being [53, 54]. By reaffirming workplace friendships as an antecedent of well-being, the current research contributes to filling gaps in the literature. By analyzing organizations through the lens of workplace friendships and well-being, the present study confirms that establishing fulfilling workplace friendships can yield positive benefits for organizations. When individuals experience positive workplace friendships, they perceive a higher level of social support in their environment and develop a greater sense of trust and belonging. These feelings in turn contribute to the individual’s sense of well-being.

Numerous studies have explored the association between well-being and organizational commitment in Taiwan, with the majority of studies identifying a positive association [13, 55]. The validation process of the current study focused on studies in Taiwan. The results were in line with those of previous studies conducted in Taiwan and echoed those of research conducted in other regions that demonstrated a positive association between well-being and organizational commitment [56, 57]. The current results support the notion that in Taiwanese organizations, an individual’s sense of well-being has positive effects on their level of organizational commitment. Furthermore, although many studies in Taiwan on well-being and organizational commitment have focused on a single industry or organization, the present study confirmed the presence of a positive association between well-being and organizational commitment among organizational members across various industries and businesses. Consequently, the findings of this study can be applied to Taiwanese organizations across various industries.

The majority of relevant research in Taiwan has reported a positive association between workplace friendships and organizational commitment [5, 17]. Similar findings have been obtained in studies conducted in other regions, including those conducted by Guohao et al. [58] and Liu [2], despite these studies differing in their sampled subjects and occupations.

Taiwanese scholars have primarily focused on investigating the associations between pairs of variables, such as that between workplace friendships and well-being or workplace friendships and organizational commitment. However, none have conducted a comprehensive study that incorporates all three variables. To address this research gap, the present study conducted a meta-analysis to analyze the correlations between workplace friendships, well-being, and organizational commitment. Furthermore, SEM was employed to validate the proposed theoretical model, with the results indicating that well-being mediates the association between workplace friendships and organizational commitment. When individuals perceive themselves to have positive workplace friendships, their satisfaction with their surroundings is enhanced, leading to increased positive feelings and overall well-being. In environments with positive workplace climates, an individual’s sense of well-being significantly increases [59]. Consequently, individuals with positive and close relationships with the organization consider themselves to be part of the organization and choose to remain with the organization. When their organizational identification is strengthened, the individuals become more willing to view the organization’s goals as their own, enhancing their identification and engagement with the organization [14].

5.2. Suggestions

5.2.1. Workplace friendships and well-being

The current study confirmed the presence of a positive association between workplace friendships and well-being by using MASEM. When individuals experience rewarding workplace friendships within their organization, their P–O fit is enhanced, which leads to more positive feelings and satisfaction and a greater sense of well-being. The present study suggests that at the individual level, organizational members can develop affirming friendships with their coworkers by actively participating in organizational activities and seeking out coworkers with similar values and interests. Through these interactions, individuals can establish positive friendships and connections that fulfill the individual’s intrinsic needs. The resulting affective support can strengthen their sense of belonging within the work environment and lead to the development of supportive relationships.

At the organizational level, this study emphasizes the importance of creating workplace environments that promote the development of workplace friendships. Although they spend considerable amounts of time together in the workplace, employees often lack the opportunity or time to develop friendships with coworkers. To address this, organizations can establish company welfare committees that provide employees with more opportunities to engage with other employees during their work or leisure time. Such opportunities can be provided by designing and promoting employee activities, establishing employee lounges, or encouraging colleagues to participate in club activities. These initiatives can facilitate the exchange of ideas and opinions about work or life, allowing employees to strengthen their workplace friendships and thereby reinforcing the positive feelings employees derive from being organizational members.

5.2.2. Well-being and organizational commitment

When an individual experiences a higher sense of well-being within an organization, they tend to feel more satisfied and identify more strongly with their current conditions. This, in turn, affects their level of organizational identification and willingness to align their personal goals with the organization’s goals and decreases turnover intention. At the individual level, when employees encounter setbacks or obstacles at work, they can seek support or solutions from coworkers or friends, which can alleviate negative emotions in the workplace. Furthermore, organizational members can engage in positive interpretations of their duties, reinforcing their sense of their importance to the organization and the meaningfulness of their work. Doing so can strengthen their organizational identification and engagement and increase their willingness to contribute to their organization’s success.

At the organizational level, individuals’ sense of well-being can be enhanced through the following means. First, organizations can establish clear performance rewards and remuneration systems. In addition to occasionally receiving verbal confirmation of the organization’s appreciation of their work, high-performing organizational members should receive substantive incentives and be made to feel confident in their job security and the robustness of the organization’s welfare system; this can foster positive feelings toward the organization. Second, organizations should provide multiple communication channels, such as anonymous suggestion boxes and town hall meetings, that enable organizational members to express their thoughts and feelings about their job or the organizational environment. Creating opportunities for dialogue between the organization and employees leads employees to feel respected and valued by the organization, reinforcing their self-worth and sense of organizational identification. Third, the design of the job duties and tasks assigned by the organization to employees should not be overly simple. Employees should have a sense of autonomy in executing their responsibilities, which can contribute to the development of positive feelings toward their job. Fourth, organizations should provide resources such as training programs and employee assistance programs. For example, mental health workers can be hired to offer support channels through which employees can seek assistance. Such action indicates to employees that the organization cares about the employees’ mental well-being, supports them, and is committed to increasing their available resources.

5.2.3. Workplace friendships and organizational commitment

The development of positive workplace friendships plays a crucial role in reinforcing individuals’ trust in and commitment to their organization, which encourages individuals to align their personal goals with the organization’s goals and strive to achieve those goals. At the individual level, employees can proactively approach coworkers with similar values or ideas and offer assistance or mental support or share their thoughts and feelings. These actions are likely to strengthen individuals’ identification and connection with the organization, leading to increased organizational commitment.

In traditional Taiwanese workplace environments, friendships between supervisors and subordinates are uncommon because of limited communication opportunities and a lack of trust between supervisors and subordinates. To encourage the formation of workplace friendships, managers can organize employee retreats, regular dinners, and other group activities. These initiatives provide opportunities for organizational members to establish friendships, fostering mutual trust among members and enhancing their acceptance of managerial leadership. This would lead employees to develop a stronger sense of solidarity and belongingness and thereby reinforce their organizational commitment [13]. Furthermore, organizations can consider personality traits when hiring new employees, prioritizing hiring of applicants who demonstrate an affinity for teamwork or who possess traits such as openness [22, 28]. By creating an environment conducive to the development of workplace friendships, organizations can increase employees’ willingness to engage in their job tasks, thereby enhancing organizational commitment and leading to positive developments in both individual and organizational performance.

5.2.4. Workplace friendships, well-being, and organizational commitment

The present study employed MASEM to validate the positive effects of workplace friendship on organizations, that is, to validate the positive correlations between workplace friendships, well-being, and organizational commitment. When employees perceive a high degree of workplace friendships, their positive feelings and overall satisfaction toward the organization are enhanced, which increases their sense of well-being. Simultaneously, their sense of identification with and belonging to the organization is strengthened, fostering a greater willingness to contribute to organizational goals. Employees who develop positive workplace friendships tend to experience higher levels of well-being, leading to increased commitment and contributions to the organization. In addition, the present study verified the presence of a positive association between well-being and organizational commitment. When organizational members experience a greater sense of well-being in the workplace, they are more likely to feel more committed to their organization and are more likely to willingly contribute to the success of the organization. This in turn improves their work performance and reinforces their intention to remain with the organization.

From a management perspective, this study recommends several strategies [2, 16, 23, 42, 54] for fostering positive employee experiences. These include making employees feel respected and appreciated, implementing comprehensive welfare and remuneration systems, and establishing effective communication channels between the organization and its employees. Workplace friendships lead to increased well-being among employees within an organizational environment, which in turn reinforces organizational commitment. The stronger an employee’s sense of well-being is, the stronger their coherence with their organization is, and stronger coherence with their organization can positively affect their work attitudes, engagement levels, and mutual growth.

5.3. Further research

5.3.1. Exploration of each variable in-depth

Studies on workplace friendships, well-being, and organizational commitment have used different measures and dimensions. Workplace friendships are typically analyzed in terms of friendship opportunities and friendship prevalence. Well-being is typically distinguished by positive emotions, negative emotions, and life satisfaction. Organizational commitment is typically assessed in terms of effort commitment, value commitment, and retention commitment. The current study analyzed each target variable as a single dimension and did not consider the different dimensions of each variable in the SEM validation of the theoretical model. Future MASEM studies should develop theoretical models on the basis of several variable dimensions to investigate and validate the correlations among relevant variables and dimensions. Doing so would enable more detailed explanations to be obtained, offering a more comprehensive basis for subsequent practice and research.

5.3.2. Enrichment of research samples

The studies analyzed in the current study comprised journal articles and master’s and doctoral theses published in Taiwan. Future studies should analyze research from other sources, such as the research archives of the National Science and Technology Council, to improve sample comprehensiveness. Research findings from other countries should also be employed for an integrated analysis to reduce the effect of cultural differences on research results and to deepen and broaden the concepts of and insights into other cultures to provide a more in-depth academic and practical reference.

5.3.3. Exploration of other potential variables

In the current study, the MASEM focused exclusively on workplace friendships, well-being, and organizational commitment. Given that these concepts have been extensively explored in Taiwan and are well established, this study can serve as a foundation for conducting meta-analyses to identify additional latent variables. Furthermore, the research scope can be expanded to encompass other variables at the organizational level, which can enable further development of the research framework and provide a more comprehensive understanding of how workplace friendships, well-being, and organizational commitment mutually influence and interact with each other. Future studies should also consider demographic information, such as gender, age, and marital status, to improve the comprehensiveness of practical suggestions.

5.3.4. Incorporation of qualitative research samples

The current study excluded qualitative studies, only incorporating data obtained from questionnaires. Future studies should consider including samples from qualitative research, such as that involving interviews and field studies, or collecting qualitative research findings for textual analysis to supplement the present quantitative research findings. Doing so may enhance the reliability, credibility, and comprehensiveness of our findings.

Ethical approval

This noninterventional study did not require ethical approval due to its design, nor did it take place within any private or protected space. Therefore, no specific permissions were required to conduct the study in the geographical regions specific to this study.

Informed consent

This study used data from published journals and theses. Informed consent was not required due to the nature of the research.

Conflict of interest

The researchers declare no competing interests.

Funding

Not applicable.