Table 1.
Participant characteristics.
| None-none | None-active | Active-none | Active-active | p-value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Men | |||||
| Number of subjects, n (%) | 133 (19.4) | 123 (17.9) | 258 (37.6) | 173 (25.2) | |
| Age, y | 74 (69–79) | 73 (69–78) | 72 (68–77) | 72 (68–75)a | 0.007 |
| Height, cm | 164.8 (161.0–168.2) | 165.7 (160.7–169.4) | 166.0 (162.0–170.2) | 166.4 (161.6–170.9) | 0.087 |
| Body mass, kg | 66.0 (60.6–70.6) | 63.3 (57.9–69.4) | 65.9 (60.0–71.7) | 65.0 (59.3–72.1) | 0.134 |
| Body mass index, kg/m2 | 24.2 (22.5–25.9) | 23.5 (21.6–25.4)a | 23.7 (22.1–25.5) | 23.5 (22.0–25.6)a | 0.043 |
| Years of education, y | 16 (12–16) | 16 (14–16) | 16 (12–16) | 16 (16–16)c | 0.010 |
| Brinkman index | 175 (0–650) | 200 (0–800) | 450 (23.8–845)a, b | 500 (52.5–887.5)a, b | 0.001 |
| Past smoking status, n (%) | 53 (60.2)* | 117 (69.6) | 121 (78.6) | 210 (75.8) | 0.008 |
| Current smoking status, n (%) | 12 (13.6) | 24 (7.7)* | 29 (18.8)* | 37 (13.4) | 0.035 |
| Alcohol intake, g/d | 11.6 (0.2–33.7) | 5.4 (0–24.7) | 17.1 (0.2–41.9)b | 14.6 (1.1–43.2)b | 0.008 |
| Living alone, n (%) | 13 (9.8) | 12 (9.8) | 39 (15.1) | 20 (11.6) | 0.318 |
| Cardiovascular risk factors, n (%) | 120 (90.2) | 104 (84.6) | 228 (88.4) | 150 (86.7) | 0.538 |
| Hypertension, n (%) | 104 (78.2) | 90 (73.2) | 195 (75.6) | 114 (65.9) | 0.067 |
| Diabetes mellitus, n (%) | 26 (19.5) | 19 (15.4) | 46 (17.8) | 35 (20.2) | 0.735 |
| Dyslipidemia, n (%) | 83 (62.4) | 67 (54.5) | 157 (60.9) | 82 (52.6) | 0.202 |
| Cerebrovascular disease, n (%) | 10 (7.5) | 7 (5.7) | 5 (1.9)* | 12 (6.9) | 0.038 |
| Mild cognitive impairment, n (%) | 34 (25.6) | 37 (30.1)* | 55 (21.3) | 26 (15.0)* | 0.014 |
| Hippocampus Vol/ICV, % | 0.39 (0.36–0.42) | 0.40 (0.37–0.42) | 0.39 (0.36–0.41) | 0.39 (0.37–0.42) | 0.184 |
| Serum BDNF, pg/ml | 19,259 (14822–21,528) | 19,866 (16864–21,591) | 18,690 (14491–21,486) | 19,351 (15698–21,619) | 0.378 |
| Physical activity level (Mets hours/week) | 0 (0–0) | 24.5 (14.0–37.5)a | 0 (0–2.7)b | 24.5 (16.2–32.7)a, c | <0.001 |
| GDS score | 3 (1–5) | 2 (1–3) a | 2 (1–4) a | 1 (0–3)a, c | <0.001 |
| Geriatric depressive symptoms, n (%) | 39 (29.3)* | 21 (17.1) | 46 (17.8) | 27 (15.6) | 0.013 |
| GDS score classification, n (%) | |||||
| Normal (0 ~ 4 points) | 94 (70.7) | 102 (82.9) | 212 (82.2) | 146 (84.4) | 0.031 |
| Mild depressive symptoms (5 ~ 8 points) | 29 (21.8) | 18 (14.6) | 39 (15.1) | 25 (14.5) | |
| Moderate depressive symptoms (9 ~ 11 points) | 8 (6.0) | 2 (1.6) | 7 (2.7) | 2 (1.1) | |
| Severe depressive symptoms (12 ~ 15 points) | 2 (1.5) | 1 (0.8) | 0 | 0 | |
| Women | |||||
| Number of subjects, n (%) | 303 (32.2) | 198 (21.0) | 267 (28.3) | 174 (18.5) | |
| Age, y | 73 (69–78) | 74 (69–78) | 72 (68–78) | 72 (69–77) | 0.335 |
| Height, cm | 152.3 (148.5–155.4) | 152.1 (149.4–155.0) | 153.0 (149.0–156.7)a | 153.1 (149.5–157.6)a, b | 0.014 |
| Body mass, kg | 52.3 (46.9–57.2) | 51.4 (46.4–55.6) | 52.4 (47.6–58.4) | 52.8 (47.9–58.0) | 0.185 |
| Body mass index, kg/m2 | 22.6 (20.4–24.9) | 22.2 (20.4–24.2) | 22.7 (20.6–24.8) | 22.4 (20.4–24.5) | 0.608 |
| Years of education, y | 12 (12–14) | 12 (12–15) | 12 (12–14) | 12 (12–14) | 0.733 |
| Brinkman index | 0 (0–0) | 0 (0–0) | 0 (0–0) | 0 (0–0)a, b | 0.028 |
| Past smoking status, n (%) | 29 (17.5) | 46 (13.7) | 28 (18.9) | 61 (20.8) | 0.550 |
| Current smoking status, n (%) | 5 (3.0) | 8 (2.4) | 5 (3.4) | 13 (4.4) | 0.124 |
| Alcohol intake, g/d | 0.0 (0.0–1.7) | 0.1 (0.0–2.5) | 0.2 (0.0–3.5) | 0.5 (0.0–8.5)a, b | 0.020 |
| Living alone, n (%) | 75 (24.8) | 76 (38.4)* | 60 (22.5)* | 47 (27.0) | 0.001 |
| Cardiovascular risk factors, n (%) | 260 (85.8) | 159 (80.3) | 228 (85.4) | 145 (83.3) | 0.361 |
| Hypertension, n (%) | 201 (66.3) | 111 (56.1) | 163 (61.0) | 99 (56.9) | 0.076 |
| Diabetes mellitus, n (%) | 28 (9.2) | 14 (7.1) | 31 (11.6) | 11 (6.3) | 0.195 |
| Dyslipidemia, n (%) | 199 (65.7) | 128 (64.6) | 178 (66.7) | 121 (69.5) | 0.772 |
| Cerebrovascular disease, n (%) | 14 (4.6) | 7 (3.5) | 7 (2.6) | 6 (3.4) | 0.647 |
| Mild cognitive impairment, n (%) | 54 (17.8) | 25 (12.6) | 33 (12.4) | 31 (17.8) | 0.155 |
| Hippocampus Vol/ICV, % | 0.41 (0.39–0.44) | 0.41 (0.38–0.44) | 0.41 (0.39–0.43) | 0.42 (0.39–0.44) | 0.695 |
| Serum BDNF, pg/ml | 18,658 (13267–21,295) | 19,226 (14479–21,421) | 19,291 (14304–21,274) | 19,106 (14278–21,717) | 0.372 |
| Physical activity level (Mets hours/week) | 0.0 (0.0–4.6) | 15.9 (8.0–24.5)a | 0.0 (0.0–4.5)b | 17.5 (9.6–25.0)a, c | <0.001 |
| GDS score | 3 (1–5) | 2 (0.8–4) a | 2 (1–4) | 2 (1–4) a | 0.001 |
| Geriatric depressive symptoms, n (%) | 86 (28.4)* | 39 (19.7) | 51 (19.1) | 34 (19.5) | 0.022 |
| GDS score classification, n (%) | |||||
| Normal (0 ~ 4 points) | 217 (71.6) | 159 (80.3) | 216 (80.9) | 140 (80.5) | 0.131 |
| Mild depressive symptoms (5 ~ 8 points) | 70 (23.1) | 35 (17.7) | 42 (15.7) | 31 (17.8) | |
| Moderate depressive symptoms (9 ~ 11 points) | 11 (3.6) | 4 (2.0) | 7 (2.6) | 2 (1.1) | |
| Severe depressive symptoms (12 ~ 15 points) | 5 (1.7) | 0 | 2 (0.7) | 1 (0.6) | |
Values are shown as median (interquartile range) for continuous variables and frequencies (percentage) for categorical variables.
GDS, the Geriatric Depression Scale; Hippocampus Vol/ICV, hippocampus volume corrected by intracranial volume (ICV); BDNF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels; Mets, metabolic equivalent.
aSignificant difference compared to the none-none group, bsignificant difference compared to the none-active group, csignificant difference compared to the active-none group.
*p < 0.05, significant difference among groups according to the chi-square test.