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. 2024 Dec 5;13(12):725–740. doi: 10.1302/2046-3758.1312.BJR-2024-0048.R1

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© 2024 Xing and Liu.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial No Derivatives (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) licence, which permits the copying and redistribution of the work only, and provided the original author and source are credited. See https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/

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Fig. 1 — The multifaceted roles and characteristics of graphene oxide scaffolds in bone defect treatment. The key attributes and functions include: 1. Enhancement of scaffold mechanical strength: the composite of graphene oxide with other materials effectively enhances the mechanical strength of the scaffold. 2. Promote the adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs): graphene oxide (GO) facilitates the adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation of BMSCs, crucial processes for effective bone tissue regeneration. 3. Regulate osteoclast differentiation: GO scaffolds have significant potential in regulating osteoclast differentiation and function, contributing to bone defect repair. 4. Immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects: GO scaffolds exert immune modulation and anti-inflammatory effects by clearing reactive oxygen species (ROS) and promoting the transformation of macrophages into the M2 phenotype. 5. Promote neural and vascular regeneration: graphene oxide scaffolds play a vital role in promoting the regeneration of neural and vascular tissues, enhancing the overall functionality of the repaired bone. 6. Carrier for bioactive substance: serving as an effective carrier, GO scaffolds enable the controlled delivery of bioactive substances, further optimizing the bone defect treatment process. HSC, haematopoietic stem cells; OCP, osteoclast precursors. Created with BioRender.com, and the license to publish from the BioRender has been obtained.