Fig. 2.

This figure illustrates the versatile application of graphene oxide (GO)-loaded bioscaffolds in addressing various types of bone defects. Critical bone defect: reduced GO (rGO) has the capability to enhance the adhesion of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) and promote their proliferation and spontaneous osteogenic differentiation, thereby significantly accelerating the repair of bone defects. Tumour bone defect: GO scaffolds exhibit excellent photothermal and magnetic thermal properties, allowing for the targeted elimination of residual tumour cells surrounding the bone defect. Osteomyelitis and infected bone defects: GO/metal nanocomposites exhibit significant advantages in antibacterial efficacy. Additionally, GO composite materials demonstrate excellent photothermal conversion efficiency in photothermal/photodynamic therapy, leading to a powerful synergistic antibacterial phototherapeutic effect. Bone destruction caused by osteoarthritis: GO composite scaffolds are capable of promoting the proliferation and chondrogenic differentiation of BMSCs, effectively addressing bone destruction caused by osteoarthritis. Osteoporotic bone defects: GO scaffolds modified with strontium (Sr) or loaded with and releasing alendronate (Aln) effectively inhibit overactive osteoclasts in osteoporosis and promote new bone formation. NIR, near-infrared. Created with BioRender.com, and the license to publish from the BioRender has been obtained.