Fig. 3.

A potential biofabrication pathway for engineering complex osteochondral grafts. a Microtissues are biofabricated in a high-throughput fashion using micromoulding, whereby single cells self-organise into spherical cellular aggregates. Phenotypically distinct microtissues can be generated by using different cell types or by exposing aggregated stem cells to tissue-specific culture conditions. b Once formed, microtissue laden bioinks are deposited via bioprinting to create spatially organised constructs. c Following bioprinting, adjacent microtissues fuse to form a single macrotissue which is matured in vitro to create tissue rudiments for articular cartilage and subchondral bone. Once implanted, the precursor tissues continue to mature, mirroring the native postnatal osteochondral developmental program, resulting in the formation of a functional osteochondral unit and regeneration of the joint surface