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. 2024 Oct 23;7(6):825–856. doi: 10.1007/s42242-024-00316-z

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 9 — Intestinal tissue engineering—progress to date and future directions. a Schematic depicting intestinal structure and function, the predominant engineering strategies to date and proposed future directions. The intestine, a hollow tubular organ, has an inner mucosa, consisting of epithelium with supporting mesenchyme, a sub-mucosa containing vasculature and lymphatics, surrounded by circular and longitudinal muscle layers regulated by an enteric nervous system. It has various key functions including digestion and absorption, transit via peristalsis and the maintenance of a barrier against luminal micro-organisms. b, c Predominant intestinal engineering strategies to date include full-thickness tissue-engineered small intestine (TESI) from human intestinal organoids (HIOs) and mucosal grafts engineered from human intestinal stem cell (ISC) organoids. d Future directions include 3D biofabrication and culture techniques to increase engineered graft size and mucosal repurposing to generate a segment of small intestinalised colon. Figure created using BioRender.com