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. 2024 Nov 7;14(6):1099–1112. doi: 10.1557/s43579-024-00660-2

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Schematic illustrations of the working principles of (a) FRAM, (b) PCRAM, (c) filamentary RRAM, (d) area-dependent RRAM, and (e) MRAM. Grey indicates electrodes and pale yellow indicates the memory material. For each, the top schematic represents the high resistance state, and the bottom represents the low-resistance state. The arrows in (a) indicate the ferroelectric polarisation orientation. The dots in (b) indicate the amorphous and crystalline phase of the material. The gradient in (d) indicates the height and width of a Schottky barrier. The arrows in (e) indicate the spin orientation and FL and RL stand for free layer and reference layer, respectively.