TABLE 3.
Associations between main flavonoid exposures and liver fat.
| Exposure |
Relative difference (highest vs. lowest category) (%) | P-Trend | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Diet score | Q1 | Q2 | Q3 | Q4 | |||
| Flavodiet score | Intake (servings/d) | 1.5 (0.0–2.5) | 3.2 (2.5–4.0) | 4.5 (4.0–5.1) | 6.0 (5.1–12.2) | ||
| Model 1 | 5.01 (4.91, 5.11) | 4.59 (4.50, 4.69) | 4.57 (4.48, 4.67) | 4.39 (4.30, 4.48) | –12.38 | <0.001 | |
| Model 2 | 5.11 (4.85, 5.38) | 4.91 (4.66, 5.17) | 4.92 (4.67, 5.18) | 4.84 (4.60, 5.10) | –5.28 | <0.001 | |
| Subclasses | |||||||
| Anthocyanins | Intake (mg/d) | 3.7 (0.0–8.0) | 14.3 (8.0–21.6) | 30.0 (21.6–41.0) | 58.5 (41.0–307.2) | ||
| Model 1 | 4.81 (4.71, 4.91) | 4.55 (4.46, 4.64) | 4.51 (4.42, 4.60) | 4.68 (4.59, 4.78) | –2.7 | 0.06 | |
| Model 2 | 4.88 (4.63, 5.13) | 4.89 (4.65, 5.15) | 4.92 (4.68, 5.18) | 5.08 (4.82, 5.35) | 4.1 | <0.01 | |
| Proanthocyanidins | Intake (mg/d) | 168.1 (0.0–236.2) | 289.8 (236.2–342.1) | 393.1 (342.1–451.9) | 539.9 (451.9–2338.3) | ||
| Model 1 | 5.12 (5.02, 5.22) | 4.65 (4.56, 4.75) | 4.48 (4.39, 4.57) | 4.33 (4.25, 4.42) | –15.43 | <0.001 | |
| Model 2 | 5.16 (4.90, 5.43) | 4.95 (4.70, 5.21) | 4.82 (4.58, 5.08) | 4.80 (4.56, 5.06) | –6.98 | <0.001 | |
| Theaflavins and thearubigins | Intake (mg/d) | 0.0 (0.0–83.0) | 249.1 (83.0–333.2) | 462.0 (333.2–581.1) | 747.2 (581.1–1100.2) | ||
| Model 1 | 4.88 (4.78, 4.98) | 4.65 (4.56, 4.75) | 4.58 (4.48, 4.67) | 4.45 (4.36, 4.54) | –8.81 | <0.001 | |
| Model 2 | 5.11 (4.86, 5.38) | 5.03 (4.78, 5.30) | 4.95 (4.71, 5.22) | 4.73 (4.49, 4.98) | –7.44 | <0.001 | |
| Flavones | Intake (mg/d) | 0.3 (0.0–0.5) | 0.7 (0.5–0.9) | 1.1 (0.9–1.5) | 2.0 (1.5–8.5) | ||
| Model 1 | 4.87 (4.77, 4.97) | 4.69 (4.59, 4.78) | 4.53 (4.44, 4.62) | 4.47 (4.38, 4.56) | –8.21 | <0.001 | |
| Model 2 | 4.91 (4.66, 5.17) | 4.94 (4.69, 5.20) | 4.89 (4.64, 5.15) | 5.02 (4.77, 5.29) | 2.24 | 0.22 | |
| Flavanones | Intake (mg/d) | 2.0 (0.0–6.3) | 12.3 (6.30–18.8) | 26.6 (18.9–36.8) | 51.3 (36.8–182.4) | ||
| Model 1 | 4.79 (4.70, 4.89) | 4.68 (4.59, 4.78) | 4.59 (4.50, 4.68) | 4.49 (4.40, 4.58) | –6.26 | <0.001 | |
| Model 2 | 4.94 (4.69, 5.20) | 4.96 (4.71, 5.22) | 4.94 (4.69, 5.20) | 4.92 (4.67, 5.17) | –0.4 | 0.62 | |
| Flavan-3-ols | Intake (mg/d) | 39.8 (0.0–87.2) | 131.3 (87.3–168.4) | 205.1 (168.5–248.3) | 306.9 (248.3–1903.7) | ||
| Model 1 | 5.01 (4.91, 5.11) | 4.60 (4.51, 4.70) | 4.52 (4.43, 4.62) | 4.43 (4.34, 4.52) | –11.58 | <0.001 | |
| Model 2 | 5.15 (4.89, 5.42) | 4.95 (4.70, 5.21) | 4.85 (4.61, 5.11) | 4.79 (4.55, 5.04) | –6.99 | <0.001 | |
| Flavonols |
Intake (mg/d) | 13.8 (0.3–20.6) | 26.7 (20.6–32.2) | 37.6 (32.2–43.7) | 51.3 (43.8–125.2) | ||
| Model 1 | 5.04 (4.94, 5.15) | 4.59 (4.50, 4.69) | 4.53 (4.44, 4.63) | 4.40 (4.31, 4.49) | –12.7 | <0.001 | |
| Model 2 |
5.17 (4.91, 5.44) |
4.92 (4.68, 5.19) |
4.89 (4.65, 5.15) |
4.78 (4.54, 5.04) |
–7.54 |
<0.001 |
|
| Flavonoid-rich foods |
Low intake |
Moderate intake |
High intake |
||||
| Tea | Intake (servings/d) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 1.7 (0.2–2.8) | 4.0 (2.8–10.0) | |||
| Model 1 | 4.96 (4.84, 5.07) | 4.63 (4.56, 4.71) | 4.50 (4.42, 4.57) | –9.27 | <0.001 | ||
| Model 2 | 5.15 (4.88, 5.43) | 5.00 (4.75, 5.25) | 4.81 (4.57, 5.06) | –6.6 | <0.001 | ||
| Model 3 | 5.14 (4.88, 5.42) | 4.99 (4.75, 5.25) | 4.81 (4.58, 5.06) | –6.42 | <0.001 | ||
| Berries | Intake (servings/d) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 0.3 (0.1–0.5) | 1.0 (0.6–3.5) | |||
| Model 1 | 4.69 (4.63, 4.75) | 4.55 (4.46, 4.64) | 4.54 (4.40, 4.68) | –3.2 | <0.01 | ||
| Model 2 | 4.92 (4.68, 5.17) | 4.96 (4.71, 5.22) | 5.01 (4.74, 5.30) | 1.83 | 0.19 | ||
| Model 3 | 4.93 (4.69, 5.18) | 4.97 (4.72, 5.23) | 5.02 (4.75, 5.30) | 1.83 | 0.21 | ||
| Apple | Intake (servings/d) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 0.3 (0.1–0.5) | 1.0 (0.6–4.0) | |||
| Model 1 | 4.88 (4.80, 4.95) | 4.62 (4.53, 4.71) | 4.31 (4.22, 4.39) | –11.68 | <0.001 | ||
| Model 2 | 5.02 (4.77, 5.27) | 4.96 (4.71, 5.22) | 4.80 (4.57, 5.06) | –4.38 | <0.001 | ||
| Model 3 | 5.02 (4.78, 5.28) | 4.96 (4.72, 5.23) | 4.81 (4.57, 5.06) | –4.18 | <0.01 | ||
| Red wine | Intake (servings/d) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 0.5 (0.1–0.8) | 1.3 (0.8–6.0) | |||
| Model 1 | 4.70 (4.63, 4.76) | 4.39 (4.30, 4.49) | 4.74 (4.63, 4.86) | 0.85 | 0.38 | ||
| Model 2 | 4.92 (4.68, 5.17) | 4.89 (4.63, 5.15) | 5.06 (4.80, 5.34) | 2.85 | 0.08 | ||
| Model 3 | 4.93 (4.70, 5.18) | 4.89 (4.64, 5.16) | 5.06 (4.80, 5.34) | 2.64 | 0.10 | ||
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; Q1–Q4, quantile.
Adjusted mean values for biomarker data were obtained via multivariable linear regression using the least squares mean statistic. P-trend values were obtained by modeling our exposures as continuous in the same test.
Model 1: age and sex.
Model 2: model 1, and further adjusted for sex, education, smoking, deprivation, BMI, physical activity, prevalent type 2 diabetes mellitus, number of dietary assessments completed, total energy intake, fiber intake, total coffee intake, nonred wine alcohol intake.
Model 3: model 2 plus summed intakes of other flavonoid-rich foods (servings/day).
Intakes are reported as median (range).