Table 2.
Characteristics of participants in the REGARDS study with diabetes at baseline, by count of SDOH
| Characteristic | 0 SDOH | 1 SDOH | 2 SDOH | ≥3 SDOH | P value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Number | 859 | 1,524 | 1,326 | 1,566 | - |
| Events (composite) | 194 (22.6) | 387 (25.4) | 400 (30.2) | 490 (31.3) | <0.001 |
| Social determinants | |||||
| Less than high school education | 0 | 34 (2.2) | 245 (18.5) | 775 (49.5) | <0.001 |
| <$35,000 Annual household income | 0 | 726 (47.6) | 1,042 (78.6) | 1,378 (88.0) | <0.001 |
| Zip code poverty (>25% residents living below federal poverty line) | 0 | 115 (7.5) | 317 (23.9) | 973 (62.1) | <0.001 |
| Residence in HPSA | 0 | 527 (34.6) | 680 (51.3) | 1,170 (74.7) | <0.001 |
| Lack of health insurance | 0 | 20 (1.3) | 82 (6.2) | 300 (19.2) | <0.001 |
| Social isolation (caregivers)a | 0 | 74 (4.9) | 219 (16.5) | 494 (31.5) | <0.001 |
| Social isolation (friends/family)b | 0 | 28 (1.8) | 67 (5.1) | 192 (12.3) | <0.001 |
| Sociodemographics | |||||
| Age, yr | 63.7±8.1 | 65.2±8.7 | 66.1±8.7 | 66.0±8.7 | <0.001 |
| Male sex | 558 (65.0) | 821 (53.9) | 609 (45.9) | 571 (36.5) | <0.001 |
| Black | 345 (40.2) | 713 (46.8) | 791 (59.7) | 1,201 (76.7) | <0.001 |
| Stroke Belt or Stroke Buckle | 538 (62.6) | 862 (56.6) | 747 (56.3) | 894 (57.1) | 0.008 |
| Medical conditions | |||||
| Hypertension | 624 (72.6) | 1,186 (77.8) | 1,037 (78.2) | 1,300 (83.0) | <0.001 |
| Hyperlipidemia | 618 (71.9) | 1,134 (74.4) | 900 (67.9) | 1,047 (66.9) | <0.001 |
| History of heart disease | 215 (25.0) | 416 (27.3) | 369 (27.8) | 427 (27.3) | 0.407 |
| History of stroke | 64 (7.5) | 144 (9.4) | 152 (11.5) | 210 (13.4) | <0.001 |
| Medications | |||||
| Antihypertensives | 598 (69.6) | 1,152 (75.6) | 1,006 (75.9) | 1,257 (80.3) | <0.001 |
| Statin | 434 (50.5) | 773 (50.7) | 631 (47.6) | 714 (45.6) | 0.017 |
| Insulin | 197 (22.9) | 366 (24.0) | 363 (27.4) | 491 (31.4) | <0.001 |
| Not taking any diabetes medications | 95 (11.1) | 186 (12.2) | 130 (9.8) | 158 (10.1) | 0.110 |
| Health status | |||||
| SF-12 physical component scorec | 45.2±10.8 | 43.2±11.2 | 40.7±11.5 | 40.0±11.2 | <0.001 |
| SF-12 mental component scorec | 55.4±7.2 | 54.6±8.2 | 53.2±9.2 | 50.8±11.0 | <0.001 |
| Health behaviors | |||||
| Current cigarette smoking | 97 (11.3) | 163 (10.7) | 210 (15.8) | 287 (18.3) | <0.001 |
| Risky alcohol consumption | 20 (2.3) | 32 (2.1) | 19 (1.4) | 26 (1.7) | 0.390 |
| Physical activityd | 550 (64.0) | 912 (59.8) | 779 (58.7) | 811 (51.8) | <0.001 |
| High adherence to Mediterranean diet | 154 (17.9) | 228 (15.0) | 168 (12.7) | 172 (11.0) | 0.039 |
| Adherence to medications | 558 (65.0) | 1,030 (67.6) | 886 (66.8) | 1,010 (64.5) | 0.170 |
| Physiological factors | |||||
| BMI, kg/m2 | 31.8±5.9 | 32.4±6.6 | 32.4±6.8 | 32.7±6.9 | 0.032 |
| Systolic blood pressure, mm Hg | 128.8±14.9 | 131.3±16.9 | 131.7±17.1 | 134.3±18.1 | <0.001 |
| Diastolic blood pressure, mm Hg | 75.5±9.5 | 76.4±10.0 | 76.3±10.4 | 77.7±11.1 | <0.001 |
| Total cholesterol, mg/dL | 176.4±38.7 | 176.6±39.7 | 181.2±42.8 | 183.8±42.4 | <0.001 |
| HDL-C, mg/dL | 43.0 (36.0–52.5) | 43.0 (36.0–52.0) | 45.0 (37.0–54.0) | 46.0 (38.0–56.0) | <0.001 |
| C-reactive protein >3 mg/L | 337 (39.2) | 682 (44.8) | 628 (47.4) | 786 (50.2) | <0.001 |
| Urinary albumin/creatinine ratio >30 mg/g | 207 (24.1) | 403 (26.4) | 412 (31.1) | 502 (32.1) | <0.001 |
| eGFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 | 130 (15.1) | 259 (17.0) | 267 (20.1) | 304 (19.4) | 0.005 |
| Fasting glucose level, mg/dL | 136.0±52.3 | 136.5±50.9 | 140.0±56.3 | 144.9±59.3 | <0.001 |
| Non-fasting glucose level, mg/dL | 163.4±66.6 | 170.3±75.1 | 172.2±80.0 | 174.5±73.5 | 0.611 |
Values are presented as number (%), mean±standard deviation, or median (interquartile range). Percentage calculations do not include missing values in denominator.
REGARDS, REasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke; SDOH, social determinants of health; HPSA, Health Professional Shortage Area; SF-12, 12-Item Short Form Health Survey; BMI, body mass index; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate.
Social isolation from caregivers defined as participants who reported they had no one to care for them if they became ill,
Social isolation from friends/family defined as those who have 0 or 1 friend/family that they have seen in the past month,
Range 0 to 100 with higher scores indicating better physical functioning,
Getting enough physical activity to work up a sweat on most days of the week.