Table 2.

List of bladder cancer biomarkers separated by location in blood, urine, tissue.

Location	Biomarker	Description
Blood	Cancer-associated antigen (CAAg)	a protein secreted by some cancer cell types, particularly bladder cancer cells. It is frequently used as a marker for the advancement of cancer and can be found in the blood (112).
Blood	Cancer Cell Exosomes	Small vesicles released by cancer cells that contain proteins and other molecules. They are being researched more and more as possible biomarkers for bladder cancer since they can convey information about the kind and stage of the disease (113, 114).
Urine	Nucleic Acid Testing	checking urine samples for the presence of cancer cell DNA or RNA. This approach has demonstrated potential in identifying bladder cancer in its early stages and distinguishing it from other forms of the disease (115, 116).
Urine	Protein Testing	Urine samples containing specific proteins may be able to detect bladder cancer. For instance, individuals with bladder cancer had higher levels of urine-based human complement factor H-related protein (hcfHrp) (117–119).
Urine	Whole Genome Sequencing	Using this method, every DNA molecule in a sample is examined to find any mutations that might point to bladder cancer. Urine samples have been used to diagnose urothelial carcinoma, a prevalent form of bladder cancer (120).
Tissue	Immunohistochemistry	This test looks for specific proteins in tissue samples using antibodies. Antibodies directed against specific proteins, for instance, can be used to identify bladder cancer cells in tissue samples (121, 122).
Tissue	Cytology	This entails using a microscope to examine a sample of cells to search for any anomalies that might point to bladder cancer (123, 124).
Tissue	Molecular Classification	This entails examining the genetic composition of bladder cancer cells to categorize them into several categories according to their molecular traits (125, 126).