Table 2.

Gut flora alterations associated with liver damage in course of opioid addiction and in presence of alcoholic and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.

Authors	Findings from the study	Reference number (year)
Zhang et al.	Intestinal flora can influence pharmacokinetics, modulating therapeutic effects and side effects of drugs.	Zhang et al. (2018)
Meng et al.	Morphine induced in mice gut epithelial barrier dysfunction and subsequent bacteria translocation mediated by TLR2 and 4 signaling.	Meng et al. (2013)
Meng et al.	Morphine treatment induced enrichment of the Firmicutes phylum and specifically the Gram-positive bacterial species Staphylococcus sciuri, Staphylococcus cohnii, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus durans, Enterococcus casseliflavus, Enterococcus faecium, and Enterococcus faecalis in the gut microbiome, using a murine model of poly-microbial sepsis due to activation of TLR2 induced sustained upregulation of IL-17A and IL-6.	Meng et al. (2015)
Mutlu et al.	Alcohol led to a disruption of the intestinal barrier integrity with ↑ permeability of the mucosa with depletion of bacteria with anti-inflammatory activity, such as Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes phyla, and ↑ in bacteria with pro-inflammation activity, such as Proteobacteria in 48 alcoholics.	Mutlu et al. (2012)
Bajaj et al.	Bile acid metabolism, related to gut flora, modulated alcohol-associated injury until alcoholic cirrhosis.	Bajaj et al. (2019)
Acharya et al.	Patients with encephalopathy+opioid use showed lower abundance of the autochthonous families Clostridiales XIV and Lachnospiraceae compared to others with ↓ in Bacteroidaceae relative abundance. PiCRUST evidenced highest aromatic amino acid and endotoxin production in opioid users, who had higher levels of IL-6.	Acharya et al. (2017)
Liu et al.	The interference of opioids on inflammatory cytokines is testified by the fundamental role of Il-6 in the development of morphine tolerance.	Liu et al. (2019)
Yu et al.	Interleukins exert a central role also in patients with NAFLD, mediated by microRNA-26a. exhibiting anti-inflammatory/immune effects.	Yu et al. (2022)
He et al.	The mir-26a-IL-6-IL-17 axis attenuated NAFLD through inhibition of IL-6 in a murine model of high-fat diet-induced obesity. IL-17 neutralization markedly decreased total liver weight, hepatic triglyceride deposition, and serum ALT concentration when compared with the control group.	He et al. (2017)
Xu et al.	Mir-26a, regulating insulin sensitivity and metabolism of glucose and lipids, was reduced in the livers of patients with NAFLD.	Xu et al. (2021)
Zhang et al.	MiR-26a-5p plays a protective role against DILI via targeting Bid, a pro-apoptotic member of the Bcl-2 family.	Zhang et al. (2022)
Grimm et al.	Neurovascular and immune system alterations are mediated by miRNA networks functioning as regulators of cellular response to opioid abuse.	Grimm et al. (2023)
Meijnikman et al.	There is an endogenous production of alcohol in NAFLD patients. Lactobacillaceae correlated with postprandial peripheral ethanol concentrations.	Meijnikman et al. (2022)